Emotional/anxiety-related behaviour was assessed using the elevated plus-maze and the light-dark test. Social behaviour was examined in terms of dyadic interactions between NRG1 mutants and an unfamiliar C57BL6 conspecific in a novel environment. There was no effect of NRG1 genotype on performance in either test of emotionality/anxiety. However, previous reports of hyperactivity in NRG1 mutants were confirmed in both paradigms. In the

test of social interaction, aggressive following was Y-27632 mw increased in NRG1 mutants of both sexes, together with an increase in walkovers in female mutants. These findings elaborate the specificity of the NRG1 phenotype for the social rather than the emotional/anxiety-related domain. They indicate that NRG1 is involved in the regulation of reciprocal social interaction behaviour and thus suggest a putative role for NRG1 in a schizophrenia-related endophenotype. (c) 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.”
“It has long-been hypothesized that changes in non-protein-coding genes and the regulatory sequences NCT-501 controlling expression could undergo positive selection. Here we identify 402 putative microRNA (miRNA) target sequences that have been mutated specifically in the human lineage and show that genes containing such deletions are more highly expressed than their

mouse orthologs. Our findings indicate that some miRNA target mutations are fixed by positive selection and might have been involved in the evolution of human-specific traits.”
“Objective: Various studies have shown that short (s)/long (I) polymorphisms of the serotonin transporter-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) might predict treatment outcome to selective

serotonin reuptake inhibitors. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the association between 5-HTTLPR and clinical response to escitalopram treatment in Korean subjects with major depressive disorder. Methods: One hundred Epothilone B (EPO906, Patupilone) and fifteen Korean patients diagnosed with major depressive disorder were evaluated during 8 weeks of escitalopram treatment at a dose of 5-20 mg/day. Patients were genotyped for 5-HTTLPR using polymerase chain reaction. Clinical symptoms were evaluated by the 21-item Hamilton Depression Rating (HAMD-21) scale during the 8 weeks of treatment. Results: Therapeutic response to antidepressant escitalopram was better in s allele carriers (ss, sl) than in I allele homozygotes (II) at 8 weeks of treatment (OR = 6.24, p = 0.026). The proportion of s allele carriers in responders was higher than that in non-responders (96.6 vs. 85.7%). The percentile decline in HAMD-21 in s allele carriers (59.86 +/- 3.23%) was larger than that in HAMD-21 in I allele homozygotes (43.13 +/- 11.49%; p = 0.029). However, 5-HTTLPR genotypes were not significantly associated with remission (p > 0.05).

By contrast, BMRF1 expression, regulated primarily by Zta, did not differ significantly between the two cell lines. Our results support a model in which LF2 regulates EBV replication by binding to Rta and redistributing it out of the nucleus.”
“Glutamate is the principal excitatory neurotransmitter

in the central nervous system. Recent evidence suggests that beta lactam antibiotics offer neuroprotection by increasing glutamate transporter expression. Moreover, these antibiotics have been shown to prevent the development of tolerance and dependence to opioids, and reduce visceral and nerve injury-induced neuropathic nociceptive responses. The aim of this study is to observe the effect of a beta lactam antibiotic, ceftriaxone,

on mechanical allodynia and mechanical hyperalgesia in diabetic rats. Diabetes was produced with the injection of a single dose of streptozocin learn more (50 mg/kg, i.p.) and this procedure resulted in neuropathic pain behaviors in the hindpaws. Mechanical allodynia was detected with an electronic aesthesiometer, and mechanical hyperalgesia was studied using the method of Randall-Selitto. With its higher doses, ceftriaxone (100, 200 mg/kg, i.p.) reduced both mechanical allodynia and hyperalgesia. Dihydrokainic acid (10 mg/kg, i.p.), a selective GLT-1 transporter inhibitor, reversed the anti-allodynic and anti-hyperalgesic effects of ceftriaxone, at doses that produced no effect on its own. Our results indicate that ceftriaxone exerts an antinociceptive effect in streptozocin-induced http://www.selleck.co.jp/products/DAPT-GSI-IX.html LY3009104 mouse diabetic rats and GLT-1 activation by beta lactam antibiotics may be a promising option in the treatment of diabetic neuropathy. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“HIV-1 gp140 envelope immunogens express conserved epitopes that are targeted by broadly cross-reactive neutralizing antibodies, but they fail to elicit similar antibodies upon immunization. The poor immunogenicity of conserved epitopes on gp140 could be linked to the high immunogenicity of variable Env regions on such constructs. Previous studies have shown that the first hypervariable

region (V1 loop) is immunogenic on soluble gp140s but elicits type-specific antibodies. To address issues related to the high immunogenicity of the V1 loop, two conceptually opposite approaches were tested. In the first approach, we eliminated the V1 loop from our gp140 construct and examined how V1 deletion altered the immunogenic properties of other Env regions. In the second approach, we took advantage of the high immunogenicity of the V1 loop and engrafted four diverse V1 loops onto a common gp140 Env “”scaffold.”" These four scaffolds were used as a cocktail of immunogens to elicit diverse anti-V1 antibodies, under the hypothesis that eliciting diverse anti-V1 antibodies would expand the neutralizing breadth of immune sera.

Rd significantly suppressed the accumulations of DNA, protein and lipid peroxidation products at 24 h post-ischemia. Rd also protected mitochondria at 4 and 24 h after reperfusion as indicated by preserved respiratory chain complex activities and check details aconitase activity, lowered mitochondrial hydrogen peroxide

production, and hyperpolarized mitochondrial membrane potential. Furthermore, Rd partly enhanced endogenous antioxidant activities following MCAO. Collectively, these findings demonstrated that Rd exerts neuroprotection against transient focal ischemia in the aged brain, which may be associated with the attenuation of redox imbalance. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Cyclical neutropenia (CN) is a rare hematopoietic disorder in which the patient’s neutrophil level drops to extremely low levels for a few days approximately every three weeks. CN is effectively treated with granulocyte

colony stimulating factor (G-CSF), which is known to interfere with apoptosis in neutrophil precursors and to consequently increase the circulating neutrophil level. However, G-CSF treatment usually fails to eliminate the oscillation. In this study, we establish an age-structured model of hematopoiesis, which reduces to a set of four delay differential equations with specific forms of initial functions. We numerically investigate the see more possible stable solutions of the model equations with respect to changes in the parameters as well as the initial conditions. The results show that the hematopoietic system possesses Aspartate multistability for parameters typical of the normal healthy state. From our numerical results, decreasing the proliferation rate of neutrophil precursors or increasing the stem cell death rate are two possible mechanisms to induce cyclical neutropenia, and the periods of the resulting oscillations are independent of the changing parameters. We also discuss the dependence of the model solution on the initial condition at normal parameter values corresponding to a healthy state. Using insight from our results we design a hybrid

treatment method that is able to abolish the oscillations in CN. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“It has recently been shown that clonidine suppresses itch-related responses via its action on alpha(2)-adrenoceptors in the spinal cord, raising the possibility that the descending noradrenergic system regulates itch signaling in the spinal cord. In this study, we investigated whether the transmission of itch signals in the spinal cord is under tonic inhibition by the descending noradrenergic system. An intraplantar injection of serotonin in mice induced biting of the treated paw (an itch-related response). An intrathecal injection of 6-hydroxydopamine (catecholaminergic neurotoxin) enhanced the itch-related response.

In contrast, 3 months of WD diet exposure significantly increased functional impairments in both the staircase and beam-traversing tests as well as increasing the volume of infarction, primarily in the cortex. The results of this study demonstrate that long-term exposure to WD diets are detrimental Angiogenesis inhibitor to ischemic outcome. Consequently, it is important to incorporate disease co-morbidities and/or risk factors in pre-clinical evaluation of neuroprotective or restorative interventions if therapies are

to be translated into the clinic. (C) 2011 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Recent studies have revealed that innate immunity is involved in the development of adaptive immune responses; however, its role in protection is not clear. In order to elucidate the selleckchem exact role of Toll-like receptor (TLR) or RIG-I-like receptor (RLR) signaling on immunogenicity and protective efficacy against influenza A

virus infection (A/PR/8/34 [PR8]; H1N1), we adapted several innate signal-deficient mice (e. g., TRIF-/-, MyD88(-/-), MyD88(-/-) TRIF-/-, TLR3(-/-) TLR7(-/-), and IPS-1(-/-)). In this study, we found that MyD88 signaling was required for recruitment of CD11b(+) granulocytes, production of early inflammatory cytokines, optimal proliferation of CD4 T cells, and production of Th1 cytokines by T cells. However, PR8 virus-specific IgG and IgA antibody levels in both systemic and mucosal compartments were normal in TLR- and RLR-deficient mice. To further assess the susceptibility of these mice to influenza virus infection, protective efficacy was determined after primary or secondary lethal challenge. We found that MyD88(-/-) and MyD88(-/-) TRIF-/- mice were more susceptible to

primary influenza virus infection than the B6 mice but were fully protected against homologous (H1N1) and heterosubtypic (H5N2) secondary infection when primed with a nonlethal dose of PR8 virus. Taken together, these results show that MyD88 signaling plays an important Pomalidomide in vitro role for resisting primary influenza virus infection but is dispensable for protection against a secondary lethal challenge.”
“Glutamatergic processes are strongly implicated in the pathophysiology and treatment of depression, including the antidepressant effects of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists. This study was designed to see whether memantine, a noncompetitive NMDA antagonist, has antidepressant effects in behaviors and synaptic plasticity. Rats were randomly divided into control, stressed, and stressed+memantine groups. The animal model was established by chronic unpredictable stress. Memantine (20 mg/kg) was administrated i.p. for 21 days. Weight, sucrose consumption, water maze behavior and prefrontal cortical long-term potentiation (LTP) were measured, followed by immunohisotchemistry test of NR2B expression.

These responses were Pifithrin-�� clinical trial generally dose-dependent (bFGF and G-CSF only) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)- independent (except for G-CSF). Thus, microarray and Bio-Plex analyses are valuable in determining early molecular responses to fibers/particles and may directly contribute to understanding the etiology of diseases caused by them. The number and magnitude of changes in gene expression or oprofileso

of secreted proteins may serve as valuable metrics for determining the potential pathogenicity of various mineral types. Hence, alterations in gene expression and cytokine/chemokine changes induced by crocidolite asbestos in LP9/TERT-1 cells may be indicative of its increased potential to cause mesothelioma in comparison to the other nonfibrous materials examined.”
“OBJECTIVE: This

study was conducted to investigate the success rate of using the facial motor evoked potential (FMEP) of orbicularis oculi and oris muscles for facial nerve function monitoring with use of a stepwise protocol, and its usefulness in predicting facial nerve outcome during cerebellopontine angle (CPA) surgeries.

METHODS: FMEPs were recorded intraoperatively from 60 patients undergoing CPA surgeries. Transcranial electrocortical stimulation (TES) was performed using corkscrew electrodes positioned at hemispheric montage (C3/C4 and CZ). The contralateral abductor pollicis this website brevis muscle was used as the control response. Stimulation was always applied contralaterally to the affected side using 1, 3, or 5 rectangular pulses ranging from 200 to 600 V with 50 mu s of pulse duration and an interstimulus interval of 2 ms. Facial potentials

were recorded from needles placed in the orbicularis oculi and oris muscles.

RESULTS: FMEP from the orbicularis oris and oculi selleck chemicals llc muscles could be reliably monitored in 86.7% and 85% of the patients, respectively. The immediate postoperative facial function correlated significantly with the FMEP ratio in the orbicularis oculi muscle at 80% amplitude ratio (P =.037) and orbicularis oris muscle at 35% ratio (P =.000). FMEP loss was always related to postoperative facial paresis, although in different degrees.

CONCLUSION: FMEPs can be obtained reliably by using TES with 3 to 5 train pulses. Stable intraoperative FMEPs can predict a good postoperative outcome of facial function. However, further refinements of this technique are necessary to minimize artifacts and to make this method more reliable.”
“The possibility of exhaled nitric oxide (eNO) in combination with lung function as a marker of airway inflammation produced by coal mining exposure was determined presuming that workers exposed to airborne hazards would possess different concentrations of eNO and decreased lung function indices, relative to control subjects recruited from the same area. The effect of smoking was also considered.

On

the other hand, there is evidence that i-LTP may exert a detrimental effect in the peri-infarct area, facilitating excitotoxic processes via the sustained, long-term enhancement of glutamate mediated neurotransmission. In the present work we will review the molecular and synaptic mechanisms underlying ischemia-induced synaptic plastic changes taking into account their potential adaptive and/or detrimental effects on the neuronal network in which they occur. Thereafter, we will consider the implications of brain plastic phenomena in the post-stroke recovery phase as well as during the rehabilitative and therapeutic intervention in human subjects. (C) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All

rights reserved.”
“Type B dissections complicated by pain, malperfusion, or aneurysm expansion selleck products mandate surgical intervention. Success of this therapy is predicated on exclusion and thrombosis of the false lumen of the aneurysm. We report a case where cessation of flow was achieved using covered stent grafts in conjunction with coil embolization of the false lumen. The introduction of coils into the false lumen is a novel approach and may provide a helpful adjunct in endovascular treatment of complicated type B aortic dissections.”
“Neuroprotection for ischemic stroke refers to strategies, applied singly or in combination, that antagonize the injurious biochemical and molecular events that eventuate OTX015 ic50 in irreversible ischemic injury. There has been a recent explosion of interest in this field, with over 1000 experimental papers and over 400 clinical articles appearing within the past 6 years. These studies, in turn, are the outgrowth of three decades of investigative work to define the multiple mechanisms and mediators of ischemic brain injury, which constitute potential targets of neuroprotection. Rigorously conducted

experimental studies in animal models of brain ischemia provide incontrovertible proof-of-principle that high-grade protection of the Carteolol HCl ischemic brain is an achievable goal. Nonetheless, many agents have been brought to clinical trial without a sufficiently compelling evidence-based pre-clinical foundation. At this writing, around 160 clinical trials of neuroprotection for ischemic stroke have been initiated. Of the approximately 120 completed trials, two-thirds were smaller early-phase safety-feasibility studies. The remaining one-third were typically larger (>200 subjects) phase II or III trials, but, disappointingly, only fewer than one-half of these administered neuroprotective therapy within the 4-6 h therapeutic window within which efficacious neuroprotection is considered to be achievable. This fact alone helps to account for the abundance of “”failed”" trials.

“
“OBJECTIVE: Patients with neurofibromatosis Type 2 (NF2) patients typically have bilateral vestibular schwannomas (VS) and are at risk for developing bilateral deafness, bilateral trigeminal, and bilateral facial nerve function loss. Previous reports suggested that treatment outcomes in these patients are worse compared with those for patients with sporadic solitary VS. Very few reports, however, have been published on linear accelerator-based radiosurgery (RS) and stereotactic radiation therapy CHIR-99021 purchase (SRT) in patients with NF2. In particular, in patients with NF2 who already have unilateral hearing loss, avoidance of hearing

loss on the opposite side poses a challenge for RS and SRT. We studied our treatment results in patients with NF2 with bilateral VS, treated with linear accelerator-based RS and SRT.

METHODS: In 204 patients with VS treated with RS or SRT in Amsterdam starting from 1992, we identified 25 patients with NF2 who had bilateral tumors. Indications for treatment were either tumor progression on sequential magnetic resonance imaging scans and/or progressive hearing loss. Mean tumor diameter was 2.5 cm. Stereotactic irradiation was administered to all patients using five noncoplanar arcs with a single Selleckchem Forskolin isocenter to a dose of 10 to 12.5 Gy in a single fraction or 20 to 25 Gy in five fractions in 1 week

prescribed to the 80% isodose encompassing the tumor. On the untreated side, all patients showed hearing loss and eight (32%) had ipsilateral deafness. Five patients were followed for less than 1 year. Of the remaining 20 patients, five had ipsilateral deafness before treatment. Consequently, 15 patients were at risk for treatment-related hearing loss. They showed a mean pure tone average (PTA) of 51 dB (8-112 dB) before treatment. After treatment all patients were assessed at yearly intervals including magnetic resonance imaging and pure tone audiometry.

RESULTS:

Median follow-up time was 51 months (12-109 mo). Local tumor Lenvatinib datasheet control was obtained in all 20 patients, and no treatment-related trigeminal or facial nerve toxicity was observed. Hearing status was assessed yearly after treatment. This assessment revealed that the mean PTA in the 15 hearing patients dropped from 51 to 77 dB (40-120 dB). In six patients (40%) the additional PTA loss ranged from 0 to 15 dB, in another six (40%) it ranged from 15 to 45 dB, and in three of these patients (20%), it was more than 45 dB. No additional hearing loss was observed beyond 36 months after treatment.

CONCLUSION: In this largest series in the literature of linear accelerator-based RS and SRT for VS NF2 patients, excellent local control rates were found with minimal facial and trigeminal nerve toxicity.

This study lends support to the idea that planum temporale asymmetry is altered in children with developmental dyslexia. (c) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“High-resolution top-down MS was used to characterize eleven integral and five peripheral subunits of the 750 kDa photosystem II complex from the eukaryotic red alga, Galdieria sulphuraria. The primary separation used LC MS with concomitant fraction collection (LC-MS+), yielding around 40 intact mass tags at 100 ppm mass accuracy on a low-resolution ESI mass spectrometer, whose retention Dorsomorphin order and mass were used to guide subsequent high-resolution top-down nano-electrospray FT ion-cyclotron resonance MS experiments (FT-MS). Both

collisionally activated and electron capture dissociation were used to confirm the presence of eleven small subunits to mass accuracy within 5 ppm; PsbE, PsbF, PsbH, PsbI, PsbJ, PsbK, PsbL, PsbM, PsbT, PsbX and PsbZ. All

subunits showed covalent modifications that fall into three classes including retention of initiating formyl-methionine, removal of methionine at the N-terminus with or without acetylation, and removal of a longer N-terminal peptide. Peripheral subunits identified by top-down analysis included oxygen-evolving complex subunits PsbO, PsbU, PsbV, as well as Psb28 (PsbW) and Psb27 (“”PsbZ-like”"). Top-down high-resolution MS provides the necessary Selleckchem LCL161 precision, typically less than 5 ppm, for identification and characterization of polypeptide composition of these important membrane protein complexes.”
“Background: Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) is a quality measure recorded by initiatives such as the National Surgical Quality Improvement Program (NSQIP). However, because surveillance-detected DVT rates may be higher than symptomatic DVT rates, we examined how differences in the method of DVT detection may affect the use of this quality measure.

Methods: Using the NSQIP database (2007-2009), we compared DVT rates of vascular (amputation,

open aortic procedures, and lower extremity bypass) and nonvascular (prostatectomy, gastric bypass [GBP], and hip arthroplasty) operations. Using a predefined literature search strategy, we compared the incidence of DVT in NSQIP to the incidence of DVT reported in published literature, diagnosed by symptomatic status or by surveillance studies.

Results: Within NSQIP, the overall incidence of postoperative Phosphoglycerate kinase DVT was 0.7%. This varied from 0.3% after GBP to 1.8% after open aortic surgery. Across all procedures except amputation, the incidence of DVT in NSQIP was similar to the incidence of DVT reported in our literature survey of “”symptomatic”" DVTs. The relative rate (RR) of literature-derived symptomatic DVTs to NSQIP ranged from 0.7 for aortic cases (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.3-1.7) to 1.4 (95% CI,.7-3.1) for GBP. Overall, surveillance studies had 11.6 higher RR of DVT compared to NSQIP (95% CI, 10.5-13), ranging from 2.6 for GBP (95% CI, 1.4-5) to 14.

03) and pre-Fontan mean right atrial pressure (P=.04).

Conclusions: At autopsy, hepatic fibrosis was commonly observed in patients who had undergone the Fontan operation. Portal fibrosis has been previously unrecognized in this population. Significant portal fibrosis occurred in most who died soon after the Fontan procedure and was associated with pre-Fontan morbidity. Hepatic disease in the single-ventricle population is multifactorial and may begin before the Fontan operation. (J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2012; 143: 904-9)”
“We previously found that the intronic

norepinephrine transporter gene (SLC6A2) polymorphism rs36017 modulates feelings of elation after administration of 20 mg d-amphetamine in healthy volunteers.

In this study, we further investigated the association between d-amphetamine response selleck products and 11 SLC6A2 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), including rs36017,

in an extended sample of Caucasian young adults.

One hundred fifty-nine healthy volunteers participated in a three-session double-blind crossover design receiving either placebo or oral d-amphetamine (10 and 20 mg). Based on our previous results, we examined the associations between levels of self-reported elation and vigor after d-amphetamine administration and SNPs and SNP haplotypes in SLC6A2.

Consistent with our previous findings, SNPs rs36017 and rs1861647 were associated with significantly higher ratings of elation and vigor after 20 mg d-amphetamine. see more Ratings of vigor after 20 mg d-amphetamine were also associated with a two-SNP haplotype formed with rs1861647 and rs5569 and a three-SNP haplotype formed with rs36017, rs10521329, and rs3785155.

These results provide further evidence that genetic variants in the SLC6A2 gene are involved in acute response to d-amphetamine, which may influence progression to amphetamine abuse. Identifying sources of variation in acute drug responses could lead to better prevention and treatment of psychostimulant abuse and may be valuable in the therapeutic Celecoxib use of stimulants.”
“In a previous study (Simmons-Stern, Budson & Ally, 2010), we found that patients with Alzheimer’s

disease (AD) better recognized visually presented lyrics when the lyrics were also sung rather than spoken at encoding. The present study sought to further investigate the effects of music on memory in patients with AD by making the content of the song lyrics relevant for the daily life of an older adult and by examining how musical encoding alters several different aspects of episodic memory. Patients with AD and healthy older adults studied visually presented novel song lyrics related to instrumental activities of daily living (IADL) that were accompanied by either a sung or a spoken recording. Overall, participants performed better on a memory test of general lyric content for lyrics that were studied sung as compared to spoken.

Methods. A sample of 87 older adults (M(age) = 83, range = 70-97, 28% male) completed measures of daily stress, cognitive interference, and NA on 6 days within a 14-day period.

Results. The measure yielded a single-factor solution with good reliability both between and within persons. At the between-person level. NA accounted for the effects of daily stress on individual differences in cognitive interference. At the within-person level, NA and daily stress were unique

learn more predictors of cognitive interference. Furthermore, the within-person effect of daily stress on cognitive interference decreased significantly with age.

Discussion. These results support theoretical work regarding associations among stress. NA, and cognitive interference, both across persons and within persons over time.”
“BACKGROUND: Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) control multidrug resistance and are upregulated in many cancers, including malignant gliomas. The diazeniumdiolate JS-K generates nitric oxide (NO) on enzymatic activation by glutathione and GST, showing promising NO-based anticancer efficacy.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the role of NO-based antitumor therapy with JS-K in U87 gliomas in vitro and in vivo.

METHODS: U87 glioma cells and primary glioblastoma cell lines

were exposed to JS-K and a variety MRT67307 clinical trial of inhibitors to study cell death by necrosis, apoptosis, and other mechanisms. GST expression was evaluated by immunocytochemistry, polymerase chain reaction, and Western blot, and NO release from JS-K was studied with a NO assay. The growth-inhibitory effect of JS-K was studied in a U87 xenograft model in vivo.

RESULTS: Dose-dependent inhibition of cell proliferation however was observed in human U87 glioma cells and primary glioblastoma cells in vitro. Cell death was partially induced by caspase-dependent

apoptosis, which could be blocked by Z-VAD-FMK and Q-VD-OPH. Inhibition of GST by sulfasalazine, cGMP inhibition by ODQ, and MEK1/2 inhibition by UO126 attenuated the antiproliferative effect of JS-K, suggesting the involvement of various intracellular death signaling pathways. Response to JS-K correlated with mRNA and protein expression of GST and the amount of NO released by the glioma cells. Growth of U87 xenografts was reduced significantly, with immunohistochemical evidence for increased necrosis and apoptosis and reduced proliferation.

CONCLUSION: Our data show for the first time the potent antiproliferative effect of JS-K in gliomas in vitro and in vivo. These findings warrant further investigation of this novel NO-releasing prodrug in gliomas.”
“Most drugs of abuse increase dopamine (DA) in nucleus accumbens (Acb). However, the effects of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) on Acb DA have not been examined. We determined the effects of subcutaneous (sc) testosterone (T) on Acb DA in male hamsters. The effects of sc amphetamine were also examined for comparison.