Denoting monomers by c, small and large left-

Denoting monomers by c, small and large left-handed clusters by x 1, x 2 respectively and right-handed by y 1, y 2, Uwaha (2004) writes down the scheme $$ \frac\rm d c\rm d t = – 2 k_0 c^2 – k_1 c (x_1+y_1) + \lambda_1(x_2+y_2) + \lambda_0(x_1+y_1) , $$ (1.12) $$ \frac\rm d x_1\rm d t = k_0 c^2 – k_u x_1 x_2 – k_c x_1^2 + \lambda_u x_2 + \lambda_0 x_1 , $$ (1.13) $$ \frac\rm d x_2\rm d t = k_1 x_2 c + k_u x_1 x_2 + Epigenetic Reader Domain inhibitor k_c x_1^2 – \lambda_1 x_2 – \lambda_u x_2 , $$ (1.14) $$ \frac\rm d y_1\rm d t = k_0 c^2 – k_u y_1 y_2 – k_c y_1^2 + \lambda_u y_2 + \lambda_0 y_1 , $$ (1.15) $$ \frac\rm d y_2\rm d t

= k_1 y_2 c + k_u y_1 y_2 + k_c y_1^2 – \lambda_1 y_2 – \lambda_u y_2 , $$ (1.16)which models the formation of small chiral clusters (x 1, y 1) from an achiral monomer (c) at rate k 0, small chiral clusters (x 1, y 1) of the same handedness combining to form larger chiral clusters (rate k c ), small and larger clusters combining to form larger clusters (rate k u ), large clusters combining with achiral monomers to form more large clusters at the rate k 1, the break up

of larger clusters into smaller clusters (rate λ u ), GSK2118436 clinical trial the break up of small clusters into achiral monomers (rate λ 0), the break up of larger clusters into achiral monomers (rate λ 1). Such a model can exhibit symmetry-breaking to a solution in which x 1 ≠ x 2 and x 2 ≠ y 2. Uwaha points out that the recycling part of the model (the λ * parameters) are crucial to the formation of a ‘completely’ heptaminol homochiral state.

One problem with such a model is that since the variables are all total masses in the system, the size of clusters is not explicitly included. This can easily be overcome by using a more formal coarse-grained model such as that of Bolton and Wattis (2003). In asymmetric distributions, the typical size of left- and right- handed clusters may differ drastically, hence the rates of reactions will proceed differently in the cases of a few large crystals or many smaller crystals. JPH203 in vivo Sandars has proposed a model of symmetry-breaking in the formation of chiral polymers (2003). His model has an achiral substrate (S) which splits into chiral monomers L 1, R 1 both spontaneously at a slow rate and at a faster rate, when catalysed by the presence of long homochiral chains. This catalytic effect has both autocatalytic and crosscatalytic components, that is, for example, the presence of long right-handed chains R n autocatalyses the production of right-handed monomers R 1 from S, (autocatalysis) as well as the production of left-handed monomers, L 1 (crosscatalysis). Sandars assumes the growth rates of chains are linear and not catalysed; the other mechanism required to produce a symmetry-breaking bifurcation to a chiral state is cross-inhibition, by which chains of opposite handednesses interact and prevent either from further growth.

Both Bxy-CTL-1 and Bxy-CTL-2 were predicted as non-secretory pero

Both Bxy-CTL-1 and Bxy-CTL-2 were predicted as non-secretory peroxisomal proteins. However, according to Shinya et al.[31], Bxy-CTL-2 was secreted after pine wood extract stimulation. BlastP search for both catalases retrieved very similar orthologous catalases (62-64% maximum identity and e-value 0.0) from different species of Caenorhabditis and other animal parasitic

nematodes, suggesting the catalases are GANT61 purchase conserved among the phylum Nematoda (Additional file 1: Figure S1 and Additional file 2: Figure S2). The relative gene expression of catalase genes of B. xylophilus Ka4 and C14-5 with or without Serratia spp. PWN-146 was studied under stress conditions (Figure 4). After Cisplatin concentration 24 h exposure to 15 mM H2O2, the expression levels of Bxy-ctl-1 and Bxy-ctl-2 genes in the B. xylophilus Ka4 and C14-5 were measured (Figure 4A and 4B). While virulent Ka4 catalases (Bxy-ctl-1

and Bxy-ctl-2) were significantly (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively) up-regulated by nearly 2-2.5-fold compared to the non-stress condition (Figure 4A) The expression of Bxy-ctl-1 in the avirulent C14-5 was unchanged and the expression of Bxy-ctl-2 was slightly reduced (p < 0.05) (Figure 4B). These results seem to support the observations denoted in Figure 2. In the presence of the associated bacteria Serratia spp. PWN-146, the relative Sepantronium cell line expression of Ka4 Bxy-ctl-1 was highly suppressed (p < 0.01), nearly 0.5-fold less than under non-stress conditions. Under the same conditions, Ka4 expression of Bxy-ctl-2 was not affected. The expression levels of both catalases in the avirulent C14-5 showed no significant induction or suppression. In the presence of control strain E. coli OP50, the expression level of Bxy-ctl-1 in the Ka4 was induced four-fold under stress conditions, and Bxy-ctl-2

expression level remained unchanged under non-stress conditions. Similar result was obtained for C14-5, in which E. coli OP50 induced 5 times more Bxy-ctl-1 expression under stress conditions, explaining the results many obtained in Figure 2. The expression levels of Bxy-ctl-2 were also induced (p < 0.05), nearly 1.5-fold (Figure 4B). Figure 4 Relative gene expression changes of Bxy-ctl-1 and Bxy-ctl-2 H 2 O 2 treatment for 24 h. Bursaphelenchus xylophilus Ka4 (virulent) and C14-5 (avirulent) with and without bacteria (A and B) (Serratia spp. PWN-146 and E. coli OP50). *p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01, compared to a normalized value of 1.00 for control nematode without H2O2. Discussion Tolerance to host-mediated OS is an essential characteristic of plant-associated organisms. In this study, we tested if B. xylophilus-associated bacteria could tolerate prolonged oxidative stress conditions with or without the nematode, in an attempt to understand their behaviour in the oxidative burst conditions of the host tree in the early stages of PWD.

It is essential to remove adherent as well as extracellular bacte

It is essential to remove adherent as well as extracellular bacteria in order to determine the invaded population. For this, gentamicin solution was added to all the wells at a concentration of 25 μg/ml and the plate was incubated

for 1 h at 37°C in 5% CO2 to kill the extracellular bacteria (Note : this concentration was based on the MIC value of gentamycin determined against MRSA 43300 which was 16 μg/ml. In addition, after treatment with 25 μg/ml of gentamycin for 1 hour, the supernatant containing killed bacteria was plated out with complete killing (no colonies on incubation) observed). Finally, the epithelial cells were washed thrice with PBS by centrifugation at 1800 rpm for 10 min at 4°C to remove Tucidinostat research buy non associated bacteria. The cells www.selleckchem.com/products/pnd-1186-vs-4718.html were re-suspended in DMEM and then treated with lysis solution (0.025% trypsin and 1% tween 20 in PBS) for 30 minutes at 37°C in 5% CO2. The cell suspension so obtained was suitably diluted and plated on nutrient agar plates. This bacterial count so obtained represented the number of invaded bacteria (I). The difference between the total number of associated bacteria (T) and the number of invaded bacteria (I) was taken as number of adhered bacteria = (T-I) CFU/ml. Results were expressed as % invasion and % adherence. Cytotoxicity

assay To determine the cytotoxic effect of S. aureus cells on NEC, (4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) reduction mafosfamide assay was performed as per the method of Saliba et al. [18]. Washed nasal cells, re-suspended in DMEM were seeded in 12 well plate. After addition of bacteria (bacteria: NEC- 10:1), the plate was incubated for adherence to occur. After 6 h of incubation, gentamicin was

added to the wells to kill the extracellular bacteria. To the washed cells, MTT was added (2 mg/ml in PBS) and incubated for 1 h at 37°C in 5% CO2. Supernatant was discarded and cells were treated with 100 μl of absolute ethanol to dissolve the formazan crystals and absorbance measured at 540 nm. The same procedure was repeated at 24 and 48 hours. Suitable control wells containing only epithelial cells without added bacteria were also processed in the same way at all time points. The learn more percentage cytotoxicity was calculated using the following formula: $$ \%\ \mathrmCytotoxicity = \left[1\hbox-\ \left(\mathrmA_540\mathrmof\ \mathrmtest\ \mathrmwell/\ \mathrmA_540\mathrmof\ \mathrmcontrol\ \mathrmwell\right) \times 100\right] $$ Effect of phage on bacterial adhesion, invasion and cytotoxicity on NEC Washed nasal epithelial cells re-suspended in DMEM were seeded in 12 well plate. Bacterial suspension (corresponding to 1 × 108 CFU/ml) was added to nasal epithelial cells (10:1). Following bacterial addition, phage was added at MOI-1 and 10, and the plate was incubated for 3 h at 37°C in 5% CO2.

Nature 2003, 423:309–312 PubMedCrossRef 37 Antony E, Tomko EJ, X

Nature 2003, 423:309–312.PubMedCrossRef 37. Antony E, Tomko EJ, Xiao Q, Krejci L, Lohman TM, Ellenberger T: Srs2 disassembles Rad51 filaments by a protein-protein interaction triggering ATP turnover

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In: Govindjee, Beatty JT, Gest H, Allen JF (eds)

Discover

In: Govindjee, Beatty JT, Gest H, Allen JF (eds)

Discoveries in photosynthesis, advances in photosynthesis and respiration, vol 20. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 793–813 Bowes G, Ogren WL, Hageman RH (1971) Phosphoglycolate production catalyzed by ribulose 1,5-diphosphate carboxylase. Enzalutamide mouse Biochem Biophys Res Commun 45:716–722PubMedCrossRef Crafts-Brandner SJ, Salvucci ME (2000) Rubisco activase constrains the photosynthetic potential of leaves at high temperature and CO2. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:13430–13435PubMedCrossRef Hatch MD (2005) C4 photosynthesis: discovery and resolution. In: Govindjee, Beatty JT, Gest H, Allen JF (eds) Discoveries in photosynthesis, advances in photosynthesis and respiration, vol 20. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 875–880 NVP-HSP990 supplier Jordan D, Govindjee (1980) Bicarbonate stimulation of electron flow in thylakoids. Golden jubilee commemoration volume of the national academy of sciences (India), pp 369–378 Jordan DB, Ogren WL (1981) Species variation in the specificity of ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase. Nature 291:513–515CrossRef Laing WA, Ogren WL, Hageman

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J Infect Dis 2004,189(3):420–430 PubMedCrossRef 33 Huebner J, Wa

J Infect Dis 2004,189(3):420–430.PubMedCrossRef 33. Huebner J, Wang Y, Krueger WA, Madoff LC, Martirosian G, Boisot S, Goldmann DA, Kasper DL, Tzianabos AO, Pier GB: Isolation and chemical characterization of a capsular polysaccharide antigen shared by clinical isolates of Enterococcus faecalis and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Infect Immun 1999,67(3):1213–1219.PubMed 34. Callegan MC,

Jett BD, Hancock LE, Gilmore MS: Role of hemolysin BL in the pathogenesis of extraintestinal Bacillus cereus infection assessed in an endophthalmitis model. Infect Immun 1999,67(7):3357–3366.PubMed 35. Arnaud M, Chastanet A, Debarbouille M: New vector for efficient allelic replacement in naturally nontransformable, low-GC-content, gram-positive bacteria. Appl Environ Microbiol

2004,70(11):6887–6891.PubMedCrossRef click here find more Authors’ contributions CT participated in the isolation and TLC analysis of Selleckchem Quisinostat glycolipids and LTA, the design and interpretation of the experiments, made the statistical analysis, and drafted the manuscript. IS performed the cell culture assays, autolysis assay and hydrophobicity assay. YB carried out the biofilm assay and participated in the molecular genetic studies. AK performed the opsonophagocytic killing assay and the mouse infection model. PSC performed the biochemical analysis of glycolipids and LTA. EG participated in the draft of the manuscript. OH participated in the biochemical analysis of the glycolipids and LTA and the draft of manuscript. JH participated in the design, coordination and interpretation of the study, and the draft of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.”
“Background Multipartite genomes are common among members of the α-proteobacteria [1]. Most

symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria belonging to the genera Rhizobium, Sinorhizobium, Mesorhizobium and Bradyrhizobium possess multipartite genomes organized as a single circular chromosome and a variable number of large plasmids [2]. In some species plasmids can represent, in terms of size, up to 40% of the total genome. In Rhizobium and Sinorhizobium species one plasmid (pSym) concentrates most of the genes required for nodulation and nitrogen Farnesyltransferase fixation [3]. The complete genome sequences of different rhizobia have revealed that plasmids harbor mainly accessory genes and that most encode predicted transport systems and a variety of catabolic pathways that may contribute to the adaptation of rhizobia to the heterogeneous soil and nodule environments [2, 4]. These genes are absent from closely related genomes, lack synteny and their G+C composition differs from that of the core genes. The core genes are mainly located on chromosomes, have essential functions in cell maintenance and have orthologs in related species [5, 6].

Apoptosis was determinate

Apoptosis was determinate selleck compound by staining cells with annexin V-FITC and propidium-iodide (PI) labeling, because annexin V can identify the externalization of phosphatidylserine during the apoptotic progression and therefore detect early apoptotic cells [29]. Cells were transduced with TG 9344 vector, on 12-well plates and treated after 24 hr by 20 μM GCV. Control cells were no transduced or untreated. After 72 hr of treatment, cells were harvested, and washed twice in PBS. The pellet was resuspended in 1 ml of 100 mM HEPES/NaOH, pH 7.5.

Then 500 μl of the cell suspension were incubated in presence of 2 μg/ml annexin V-FITC, and 10 μl of PI (100 μg/ml) for 10 min. Samples were immediately analyzed by flow cytometry on a bi-parametric histogram giving the level of annexin V-FITC and PI fluorescence. selleck Apoptosis was assessed by DNA fragmentation assay. Samples of 5.105 pTG 9344 transduced cells with or without synchronization were treated 96 hr with 20 μM GCV. Cells then were centrifuged at 800 g for 5 min at 4°C. The pellet was resuspended in 20 μl of lysis buffer (EDTA 20 mM, Tris 100 mM, SDS 0,8%,

pH 8). Then 10 μl of 500 UI/ml RNAse (Sigma) were added for 60 min at 37°C. The mix was incubated 90 min at 50°C with 10 μl of 20 mg/ml proteinase K. Migration was achieved on 1.8% agarose gel containing 0.5 μg/ml ethidium bromide at 35 V during 4 hr. MSP I digested PBR 322 was used as a size marker. Non-transduced cells treated with MTX or GCV constituted control groups. Statistical analysis Comparisons were made using the Student’s t test. P < .05 was considered as significant. Results

Altered progression in the cell cycle by methotrexate, ara-C or aphidicolin DCLK1 We first assessed the effect of drugs on DHDK12 and HT29 cell cycles to see more delineate the time for which a maximum of cells were in S phase after drug removal. The effects of the three drugs, i.e. MTX, ara-C and aphidicolin, on the cell cycle were preliminary assessed in DHDK12 cells. After a 24 hr treatment with MTX, ara-C or aphidicolin, cells were analyzed between 0 and 72 hr after drug removal for DNA content by flow cytometry. In the DHDK12 cell line, 20% of cells were in S phase in the absence of drug and this rate was constant over time (Figure 1A). When DHDK12 cells were treated with ara-C or aphidicolin, 25% and 35% of cells were in S phase 10 hr after ara-C or aphidicolin removal, respectively (Additional file 1). By contrast, treatment with MTX resulted in 51% of the cells to be in S phase, while 28% were in G0-G1 phase, 10 hr after drug removal (Figure 1A). The ratio of cells in S phase remained higher than that in G1 phase up to 30 hr following MTX removal.

05, compared to the cells transfected with PLK-1 siRNA alone In

05, compared to the cells transfected with PLK-1 siRNA alone. In addition, we also evaluated cell apoptosis after PLK-1 knockdown by double-staining with PI/Annexin-V, followed by flow cytometric analysis. We observed a consistent pro-apoptotic effect of PLK-1 knockdown on HeLa cells. The apoptotic rate of PLK-1 knockdown HeLa cells increased significantly from 4.2% to 12.5% (P < 0.05), whereas PLK-1 transfection did not significantly affect HeLa cell apoptosis (Fig. 4). Interestingly, although cisplatin did

not drive the cell cycle in combination with PLK-1 siRNA, it acted synergistically with PLK-1 siRNA in inducing cell apoptosis (12.5% vs. 24.9%, P < 0.05). PLK-1 knock-down inhibited cell proliferation and increased caspase-3 activity To further determine the PF477736 effects of PLK-1 siRNA transfection on HeLa cells, we then examined cell proliferation and caspase-3 activity by MTT and fluorescent assay, respectively. As shown in Fig 5, PLK-1 knockdown significantly inhibited cell proliferation, as compared to the control (P < 0.05). However, PLK-1 transfection showed no significant effect. After treatment with cisplatin, we observed a synergistic effect of PLK-1 siRNA and cisplatin treatment on HeLa cell proliferation (P < 0.05). Furthermore, PLK-1 siRNA significantly increased caspase-3 activity in

HeLa cells; caspase-3 activity was further enhanced by cisplatin compared to control and PLK-1 transfected HeLa cells (P < 0.05). These results were consistent Selleck JNJ-26481585 with those of the morphological examination, flow cytometric analysis and proliferation assays, suggesting that PLK-1 knock-down contributes to the induction of apoptosis in HeLa cells and to enhancing chemosensitivity. Figure 5 PLK-1 Fluorouracil in vitro knockdown by siRNA transfection modulated proliferation

and caspase-3 activity in HeLa cells. A, PLK-1 knockdown significantly inhibited cell proliferation, as determined by MTT assay; B, Cell proliferation curve for four groups of HeLa cells was presented, as determined by MTT assay; C, PLK-1 knockdown significantly increased caspase-3 activity in HeLa cells, as determined by Fluorescent Assay. Data are the means of three independent Lorlatinib experiments. * P < 0.05 compared to the control cells. Discussion It is well-recognized that PLK-1 plays an important role in cell cycle regulation by functioning in centrosome maturation, spindle formation, mitotic entry, and cytokinesis. When responding to DNA damage, PLK-1 triggers cell cycle arrest in the G2 and M phases, determining cell fate. The significance of PLK-1 has been demonstrated in a variety of tumors. For example, Takai et al. found that expression of PLK-1 in ovarian cancer is associated with histological grade and clinical stage [13]. Feng et al. reported that overexpression of PLK1 is associated with poor survival due to the inhibition of apoptosis via enhancement of survivin levels in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma [15].

Furthermore, strains containing both the arsenite oxidase and any

Furthermore, strains containing both the arsenite oxidase and any type of transporter gene showed a higher G418 nmr arsenite resistance level. These results

suggest that bacteria capable of both arsenite oxidation and arsenite efflux selleck mechanisms have an elevated arsenite resistance level. We also found that arsenite can be fully oxidized even at concentrations close to the MIC in arsenite oxidizers SY8 and TS44 (data not shown). Recently, we have amplified and sequenced the arsC/ACR3 operon (arsC 1-arsR-arsC 2-ACR3-arsH) in the adjacent downstream region of aoxB in Pseudomonas. sp. TS44 (data not shown; GenBank, EU311944). Kashyap et al. [31] found that in Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain 5A, disruption of aoxR caused a loss in the ability to oxidize arsenite and furthermore resulted in an apparent reducing phenotype probably due to the action of cytosolic ArsC and subsequent pumping out of As(III). It is noteworthy to point out that there are two processes of As(V)

reduction in the environment. One is the Capmatinib manufacturer use of As(V) as a terminal electron acceptor under anaerobic conditions. The other is the intracellular reduction of As(V) to As(III) under aerobic conditions due to the ArsC-dependent cytoplasmic arsenate reduction as part of the arsenic resistance system (ars operon). Since As(III) is the species being pumped out of cell (by arsB or ACR3), the presence of IKBKE As(III) in the environments can also be detected under aerobic condition. One of the main purposes in this research was

to determine the correlation among the bacterial arsenite resistance level, bacterial distribution in the environment and the different types of arsenite transporter gene families. We found that the ACR3 genotypes were predominant over arsB (33 ACR3 vs. 18 arsB) in our samples which was in agreement with a report by Achour et al. [16]. In addition, we found any two types of arsenite transporter genes can coexist in the same strain [arsB and ACR3(1), arsB and ACR3(2), ACR3(1) and ACR3(2)]. Related reports also found the presence of multiple sets of arsenic resistance genes and operons in one strain, especially the arsenite transporter genes. Pseudomonas putida KT2440 contains two operon clusters (arsRBCH) for arsenic resistance [38]. Acidithiobacillus caldus has three sets of arsenic resistance determinants, one located on the chromosome and the other two exist on the transposon [39, 40]. Corynebacterium glutamicum has two typical arsenic-resistant operons and additional arsB and arsC genes, of which two arsenite transporter genes belonged to the ACR3(1) group [41]. The genome of Herminiimonas arsenicoxydans revealed the presence of four arsenic resistance operons including two arsB genes and one ACR3 [42]. Multiple sets of arsenic resistance determinants were also reported in B. subtilis [18] and Desulfovibrio desulfuricans G20 [43].

One million T cells were fixed with 70% cold ethanol

One million T cells were fixed with 70% cold ethanol Dibutyryl-cAMP at 4°C for 30 min, washed with PBS twice, and stained with 50 g/ml PI (Sigma, USA) at room temperature for 5 min. Data were analyzed with Mod-FIT software. Effect of MSCs on T cell activation MSCs and MNCs were prepared as described before, respectively. T cells were cultured alone or cocultured with

prepared MSCs and stimulated with PHA (50 g/ml final concentration). The expression of CD25 (BD, USA) and CD69 (BD, USA) was detected by flow cytometry at 24 h, and CD44 (BD, USA) was detected at 72 h. Effect of MSCs on T cell apoptosis MSCs and MNCs were prepared as described before. T cells were cultured alone or cocultured withMSCs with PHA (50 g/ml final concentration) stimulation for 3 days, then harvested and quantified, stained with Annexin-V kit (BD, USA), and analyzed by flow cytometry (FACS Vantage). RNA-i experiments The si-RNA sequence targeting human MMP-9 (from mRNA sequence; Invitrogen online) corresponds to the coding region 377-403 relative to the first

nucleotide of the start codon (target = 5′-AAC ATC ACC TAT TGG ATC CAA ACT AC-3′). Computer analysis using the software developed by Ambion Inc. confirmed this sequence to be a good target. si-RNAs were 21 nucleotides long with symmetric 2-nucleotide 3′overhangs composed of 2′-deoxythymidine to enhance nuclease resistance. The si-RNAs PX-478 datasheet were synthesized chemically and high pressure liquid chromatography purified (Genset, Paris, France). Sense si-RNA sequence was 5′-CAU CAC CUA UUG GAU CCA AdT dT-3′. Antisense si-RNA was 5′-UUG GAU CCA AUA GGU GAU GdT dT-3′. For annealing of si-RNAs, mixture of complementary single stranded RNAs (at equimolar concentration) was incubated in annealing buffer (20 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.5, 50 mM NaCl, and 10 mM MgCl2) for 2 minutes at 95°C followed by a slow cooling to room temperature (at least 25°C) and then proceeded to storage temperature of 4°C. Before transfection, cells cultured at

50% confluence in 6-well plates (10 cm2) were washed two times with OPTIMEM 1 (Invitrogen) without FCS and incubated in 1.5 ml of this medium without FCS for 1 hour. Then, cells were transfected Megestrol Acetate with MMP-9-RNA duplex formulated into Mirus TransIT-TKO transfection reagent (Mirus Corp, Interchim, France) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Unless otherwise described, transfection used 20 nM RNA duplex in 0.5 ml of transfection medium OPTIMEM 1 without FCS per 5 × 105 cells for 6 hours and then the medium volume was adjusted to 1.5 ml per well with RPMI 2% FCS. SilencerTM negative CFTR inhibitor control 1 si-RNA (Ambion Inc.) was used as negative control under similar conditions (20 nM). The efficiency of silencing is 80% in our assay. Enzyme-linked Immunoadsorbent Assays This was carried out according to the manufacturer’s recommendations (Oncogene Research Products).