Photobleaching and photodamage also are troublesome, although these effects are not unique to voltage imaging. These problems can be mitigated with the inherent sectioning

and lower scattering of nonlinear microscopy techniques, such as two-photon fluorescence and second-harmonic generation (SHG), but unfortunately, Osimertinib concentration new problems also arise. Two-photon absorption or SHG is much less efficient than single photon absorption, and the excitation volume small, so fewer chromophores are excited, leading to lower overall photon counts, smaller absolute signals, and, currently, higher noise. Still, for optimal precision and imaging deep into intact brain tissue, nonlinear imaging is a must, and the development of optimal two-photon or SHG active voltage sensors appears clearly necessary. In the following section we discuss common methods of voltage imaging in neuroscience,

focusing on mammalian preparations, which, to us, are where the limitations are most acute. We will not cover the history of this field or attempt to comprehensively review it. Instead, we will focus on providing examples of methods that tap into different biophysical mechanisms of voltage sensitivity. It should be stated that while some mechanisms and detection schemes theoretically allow for the absolute determination of the transmembrane voltage, in nearly all experiments, what is actually measured is the change in membrane potential ( Ehrenberg and Loew, 1993). As mentioned previously, it is important to note that voltage indicators can gain their overall sensitivity from a combination of mechanisms, Torin 1 mw each with different timescales, which complicates the calibration. However, in many cases, one particular mechanism appears to be dominant, and this dominant mechanism is typically used to describe

the chromophore. We will describe these different dominant mechanisms ( Figure 2, Table 1) and illustrate them with data from mammalian preparations, chosen as examples of the best signal to noise measurements ( Figure 3 and Figure 4). We will highlight only a few second contributions from the literature, as representatives of a large body of work that will not be explicitly cited. We will also review some limitations of these current approaches, a critical exercise that seems to us necessary to move beyond the current state of these techniques. We finish with some thoughts on how to carry out these improvements. Most efforts in voltage imaging involve the synthesis of organic chromophores that can bind to the plasma membrane. This line of work extends now for several decades, starting with invertebrate preparations, and has used chromophores for both absorption and emission (for reviews see Cohen, 1989, Cohen and Lesher, 1986, Gross and Loew, 1989 and Waggoner and Grinvald, 1977). These approaches rely on several different mechanisms of voltage sensing that are common to both absorption and fluorescence, so we will review them together.

The flea counts for both studies are summarized in DNA Synthesis inhibitor Table 1. In both studies, the flea counts of untreated dogs were consistently high, with geometric means ranging from 58.9 to 93.8. For live flea counts performed 12 h after treatment or challenge infestations, the percent efficacy was ≥95.2% for the first four infestations through Day 21, was 81.1% on Day 28, and was 93% on Day 35 in Study 1. Efficacy at 12 h was ≥98.5% through Day 28 and 89.7% on Day 35 for Study 2. For live

flea counts performed 24 h after treatment or challenge infestations, percent efficacy was 100% for all time points until Day 35, with the exception of one time point (99.9% on Day 22) for Study 2. The flea counts were significantly different between treated and control dogs at all time-points for both 12 and 24 h counts in both studies (p = 0.003 Study 1, p = 0.0006 Study 2). The flea egg counts for Study 1 are summarized in Table 2. For egg counts performed 12 h after treatment, meaning 36 h after flea infestations, 22 eggs were found from treated dogs (Groups 2, 0–11 eggs per dog) and a total of 183 eggs from control dogs (Groups 1, 4–90 eggs per dog)

(efficacy of 88.8%, p < 0.004). For egg count performed 24 h after treatment, meaning 48 h after flea infestations, 43 eggs were found from treated dogs (Groups 4, 1–17 eggs per dog) and a total of 431 eggs from control dogs (0–118 eggs per dog) (efficacy Enzalutamide in vivo of 85.8%, p = 0.028). For egg counts performed 12 h after infestation at or beyond Day 7, two treated animals had a single egg collected on Day 14, compared to 216 eggs collected in Group 1 dogs (9–62 eggs per dog), resulting in 99.1% efficacy. One treated animal had a single egg collected on Day 21,

compared to 213 eggs collected in Group 1 dogs (3–81 next eggs per dog) resulting in 99.5% efficacy. No eggs were collected on treated dogs at Days 7, 28 or 35, when 150, 194 and 112 eggs were collected from control dogs at Days 7, 28 and 35, respectively. For C. felis egg counts performed 24 h after challenge infestation at or beyond Day 7, only one treated animal had a single egg collected on Day 15, compared to 438 eggs collected from control dogs (8–113 eggs per dog), resulting in 99.8% efficacy. For all other time points at 24 h post-infestation, the efficacy was 100% as no eggs were found in the treated Group. In the control group, 297, 421, 253 and 357 eggs were collected at Days 8, 22, 29 and 36, respectively. There was no observed adverse event based on hourly post-treatment observations for 4 h and daily observations thereafter. Oral treatment of dogs with the new insecticide afoxolaner at the minimum effective dose of 2.5 mg/kg provided ≥99.9% efficacy against adult fleas at 24 h count for 5 weeks after a single administration. The present study also demonstrated a sustained 12 h efficacy against adult fleas for a full month.

“
“A brain contains many types of neurons that are derived from a limited number of progenitors (Truman and Bate, 1988 and Noctor et al., 2001). Most neural progenitors are destined to yield multiple neuron types. Interestingly, distinct neurons arise in specific temporal patterns in diverse model organisms. Although multiple mechanisms may act in sequence to ensure proper neuronal differentiation, it has become increasingly evident that neurons are born with defined birth-order/time-dependent

cell fate, generally referred to as neuronal temporal identity (Livesey and Cepko, 2001, Pearson and Doe, 2004, Batista-Brito et al., 2008, Jacob et al., 2008, Baek and Mann, 2009, Kao and Lee, 2010 and Okano and Temple, 2009). The relatively simple Drosophila brain develops Enzalutamide from a fixed number of neuroblasts (NBs) ( Truman and Bate, 1988 and Ito and Hotta, 1992). Most NBs make a characteristic set of neurons through the production of a series of ganglion mother cells (GMCs), which then divide once to deposit two neurons following each NB asymmetric cell division ( Knoblich, 2008 and Sousa-Nunes et al., 2010). Neurons of the same lineage origin remain clustered through development.

Such local and synchronized differentiation provides little room for the environment to diversify neurons born from the same progenitor. The congenital MAPK inhibitor endowment of different neuronal temporal identities probably underlies most, if not all, birth-order/time-dependent neuron type determinations in the Drosophila brain. Complete ADP ribosylation factor sequencing of a neural lineage (delineating neurons sequentially derived from a single progenitor) has substantiated the notion that every neuron was born with a predetermined fate contingent upon its birth order in the lineage. In the lineage that makes anterodorsal projection neurons (adPNs) of the antennal lobe (AL) (see Figure S1A available online), the progenitor deposits one AL PN at one time, as Notch-dependent

binary fate decision confers premature cell death on the other daughter cells of GMCs (Lin et al., 2010). Intriguingly, it yields 40 types of adPNs in an invariant sequence (Figure S1B) (Yu et al., 2010). The diverse adPNs, including 35 types of uniglomerular PNs and five types of polyglomerular PNs, can be distinguished based on their dendritic elaboration patterns in the AL. They also exhibit characteristic axon trajectories in the mushroom body (MB) and lateral horn (LH) (Jefferis et al., 2001, Marin et al., 2002, Marin et al., 2005, Wong et al., 2002 and Yu et al., 2010). Eighteen types of adPNs arise during embryogenesis, and the remaining 22 types are added through larval development. The embryonic-born adPNs, except the two VM3 glomerulus-targeting ones, are individually unique.

The form of this general update equation is reminiscent of RL models. Specifically, the precision-weighting can be understood as (component of) a dynamic learning rate (cf. Preuschoff and Bossaerts, 2007); see Mathys et al. (2011) and section A of the Supplemental

Experimental Procedures for details. In our three-level HGF, two precision-weighted PEs εi occur. At the second level, ε2 is the precision-weighted www.selleckchem.com/products/LY294002.html PE about visual stimulus outcome that serves to update the estimate of x2 (the cue-outcome contingency in logit space). At the third level, ε3 is the precision-weighted PE about cue-outcome contingency that is proportional to the update of x3 (environmental log-volatility). These are the two quantities of

interest that the fMRI analyses in this article focus on. For the exact equations, see the Supplemental Experimental Procedures, section A. The experiment was conducted on a 3T Philips Achieva MR Scanner at the SNS Lab, using an eight channel SENSE head-coil. Structural images were acquired using a T1-weighted sequence. For functional imaging, 500 whole-brain images were acquired in the first fMRI study and 550 images in the second fMRI study, using a T2∗-weighted echo-planar imaging sequence www.selleckchem.com/products/crenolanib-cp-868596.html that had been optimized for brain stem imaging (slice thickness: 3 mm; in-plane resolution: 2 × 2 mm; interslice gap: 0.6 mm; ascending

continuous in-plane acquisition; TR = 2,500 ms; TE = 36 ms; flip angle = 90°; field of view = 192 × 192 × 118 mm; SENSE factor = 2; EPI factor = 51). In order to reduce field inhomogeneities a second order pencil-beam volume shim (provided by Philips) was applied during the functional acquisition. Functional data acquisition lasted ∼21 min. During fMRI data acquisition, respiratory and cardiac activity was acquired using a breathing belt and an electrocardiogram, respectively. fMRI data were analyzed using statistical parametric mapping (SPM8). Following motion correction of Rutecarpine the functional images and coregistration to the structural image, we warped both functional and structural images to MNI space using the “New Segment” toolbox in SPM; see Appendix A in Ashburner and Friston (2005). The functional images were smoothed applying a 6 mm full-width at half maximum Gaussian kernel and resampled to 1.5 mm isotropic resolution. In order to optimize signal-to-noise ratio for critical regions such as the brain stem, we corrected for physiological noise using RETROICOR (Glover et al., 2000) based on an in-house implementation (Kasper et al., 2009) (open source code available at http://www.translationalneuromodeling.org/tapas). For fMRI data analysis, we specified a voxel-wise general linear model (GLM) for each participant.

In a similar situation, we previously showed that FMRP deficiency in mice leads to impaired hippocampal neurogenesis and hippocampal-dependent learning and that FMRP regulates DG-NPCs via

check details the Wnt signaling pathway ( Guo et al., 2011 and Luo et al., 2010). However, in the current study, we discovered that DG-NPCs in Fxr2 KO mice have increased neuronal differentiation with no change in Wnt signaling in Fxr2 KO DG-NPCs. In addition, FMRP inhibits Gsk3β protein expression by repressing translation without affecting Gsk3β mRNA stability, whereas FXR2 represses Noggin protein expression by reducing the stability of Noggin mRNA. Furthermore, FMRP deficiency results in increased proliferation of both stem cells and transient amplifying cells in the adult DG ( Luo et al., 2010), and loss of FXR2 only affects stem cell proliferation in the DG. Therefore, both FMRP and FXR2 can regulate adult hippocampal NPCs by binding to the mRNAs of NPC regulators, but their mechanisms, as

well as their functional outputs, are different. Posttranscriptional regulation of critical regulatory mRNAs by RNA-binding proteins is likely to be a common mechanism during critical cellular processes ( Bhattacharyya see more et al., 2008, Callan et al., 2010, Tervonen et al., 2009 and Yang et al., 2009), but evidence for this in adult mammalian neurogenesis is rather limited. Our data are among the first to demonstrate that RNA-binding proteins can play important roles in the differential regulation of NPCs residing in different adult brain regions. Future studies examining the role of FXR2 in generating the inhibitory interneurons of the olfactory bulb and excitatory neurons of the DG, particularly in comparison with FMRP, will further contribute to our knowledge of these important RNA-binding proteins in adult neurogenesis and plasticity. All animal procedures were performed according to protocols approved by the University of

New Mexico Animal Care and Use Committee. The Fxr2 KO mouse strain on the C57B/L6 genetic background published previously ( Bontekoe et al., 2002) was obtained from the Emory University fragile X consortium. The NogginLacZ all transgenic mice were maintained and genotyped as described previously ( Stottmann et al., 2001). In vivo neurogenesis analyses were performed essentially as we have previously described (Guo et al., 2011, Luo et al., 2010, Smrt et al., 2007 and Zhao et al., 2003). Mice were given four injections of BrdU (50 mg/kg) within 12 hr to label all dividing cells in adult germinal zones within this time period based on a published paradigm (Hayes and Nowakowski, 2002). Mice were then euthanized either at either 12 hr or one week following the final BrdU injection. Antibody information is provided in Supplemental Experimental Procedures. Quantification of BrdU+ cells in the DG and SVZ and phenotypic analysis of BrdU+ cells were performed as described previously.

, 2002). On the other hand, the results on cholinergic synaptic transmission between SACs and DSGCs contradicted the previous report that did not detect such a transmission (Fried et al., 2002). It is remarkable that the spatial symmetry of cholinergic and GABAergic synaptic connections between SACs and DSGCs were completely different, suggesting that synaptic connectivity between these two cell types is not based simply on the relative direction of the presynaptic

and postsynaptic learn more dendrites. Rather, the synaptic connectivity between SACs and DSGCs is controlled at a much more specific and local level, depending on the identity of the synapses as well as the direction of the dendrites. To demonstrate the presence of monosynaptic nicotinic and GABAergic transmissions from a SAC to a neighboring DSGC, we analyzed the synaptic delay of cholinergic and GABAergic transmissions under dual voltage clamp. The temporal delay between the onset of the presynaptic voltage pulse and the onset of postsynaptic current response was 6.61 ± 0.28 ms (mean ± SEM, n = 18) for cholinergic,

and 6.54 ± 0.30 (mean ± SEM, n = 18) for GABAergic transmission (Figures 2A and 2B). A large portion of this delay corresponded to the time required to activate presynaptic Ca2+ currents under our recording condition (data not shown) and was similar to some of the synaptic delays previously reported for other CNS synapses (Jo and Schlichter, 1999 and Jonas et al., 1998). However, the relative difference in synaptic delay between www.selleckchem.com/products/ABT-888.html the cholinergic and GABAergic

responses was not statistically distinguishable (p = 0.48, Oxalosuccinic acid Figure 2C), suggesting that at least the initial GABAergic response was not mediated by polysynaptic transmission activated by cholinergic excitation. The presence of direct ACh-GABA cotransmission between SACs and DSGCs was further proven by uncaging Ca2+ from DM-nitrophen (loaded in SACs via the patch electrode) under the condition in which all potential Ca2+-dependent polysynaptic transmission was blocked by the Ca2+ channel blocker Cd2+ (300–500 μM). Ca2+ uncaging in a single SAC evoked rapid cholinergic and GABAergic responses from a neighboring DSGC (Figures 2D and 2E), demonstrating unequivocally ACh-GABA cotransmission between SACs and DSGCs in functionally mature rabbit retina. We next examined cholinergic and GABAergic contributions to the visual responses of DSGCs. A moving light bar elicited directionally asymmetric excitatory (EPSC) and inhibitory (IPSC) postsynaptic currents in DSGCs (Figure 3A). The IPSCs evoked by the null movement were much larger than those evoked by the preferred movement, as previously reported (Fried et al., 2002, Fried et al., 2005, Taylor and Vaney, 2002 and Weng et al.

7 Å and 5.5 Å (Figure 3A); this close apposition is similar to that found in homomeric dimer assemblies for the GluR6, GluR6Δ1, and GluR7 ATDs, for which the corresponding Cα positions are separated by 5.5, 5.8 and 5.6 Å, while for the KA2 homodimer assembly these residues are separated by 10.7 Å. In addition to this movement, analysis of the extent of domain closure indicates that the KA2 clam shell in the heterodimer is closed by 4.5°–7.5° compared to KA2 subunits in homodimer crystal structures, while the GluR6 subunit is closed

BMN 673 supplier by 4.2°–6.5° when compared to GluR6 homodimer structures. Solvent accessible surface analysis of

the GluR6/KA2 heterodimer interface reveals a total buried area of 2953 Å2 with the KA2 protomer contributing 1496 Å2, a gain of 536 Å2 compared to the KA2 homodimer assembly (Figure 2D). For the GluR6 subunit, although there is little change in buried surface area in the homodimer and heterodimer assemblies, local rearrangements produce key changes in intersubunit contacts. The R1 interface in both the GluR6/KA2 heterodimer and in the GluR6 homodimer is formed primarily by a close apposition of α helices B and C from each protomer. For both subunits, loop 3, which has been proposed to be a major determinant of subtype-specific assembly mediated by

iGluR ATDs (Jin et al., 2009), selleck chemicals projects into the heterodimer interface and is anchored by intramolecular disulfide bonds between Cys65 or Cys64 on α-helix B, and Cys316 or Cys315, for GluR6 and KA2, respectively (Figures only 3, S4A, and S4B). Of note, we observe novel intersubunit interactions in the heterodimer assembly, which are absent in GluR6 and KA2 homodimer structures, and which involve loop 3. Due to formation of a hydrogen bond between the KA2 Tyr57 OH group and the GluR6 main chain nitrogen of Asn317, the tip of loop 3 in the GluR6 subunit undergoes a conformational change in the heterodimer assembly (Figure 3A). This results in a 5Å movement of the Asn317 side chain, which dips down into the heterodimer interface and becomes trapped between the Asp61 and Tyr57 side chains near the base of α-helix B in the KA2 subunit. Due to replacement of Tyr57 by Phe58, in the GluR6 homodimer this hydrogen bond is absent. Additional interactions made by the KA2 protomer at the R1 interface, which are unique to the heterodimer structure, result from movement of α helices B and C toward the central axis of dimer formation, generating a series of contacts with the GluR6 protomer that are absent in KA2 homodimers.

Forty-eight hr after transfection, viral supernatants were collected and filtered through a 0.45 μm filter, then concentrated by ultracentrifuging at 19,400 rpm for 2 hr at 4°C. OPCs were infected at multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 50 (MOI was determined Venetoclax price in human 293T cells). The infection rate was >90% in these cultures. The mouse oligodendrocyte precursor cell line Oli-neu (Jung et al., 1995) was a kind gift from Dr. P. Wright (University of Arkansas). The Oli-neu cells were maintained in growth medium consisting of DMEM supplemented with N2 and 1% horse serum. Oli-neu

cells were transfected with luciferase reporters and assayed 24 hr posttransfection for luciferase activities by using a Promega luciferase

assay kit according to the manufacturer’s instructions. For immunoprecipitation, whole-cell lysates were prepared from brain tissues and cells using 1× Passive lysis buffer (Promega) supplemented with a protease inhibitor cocktail (1:200, find more Sigma). A total of 300 μg of cell lysate proteins were incubated with 2 μg antibody. Phosphatase inhibitors used for immunoprecipitation are 5 μM microcystin, 2 mM imidazole, 1.15 mM sodium molybdate, and 0.184 mg/ml sodium orthovahedate. Western blotting was performed using chemiluminescence with the ECL kit (Pierce) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Chick embryo in ovo electroporation in developing the neural tube was conducted as previously described ( Ye et al., 2009). Quantifications were performed from at least three independent experimental groups. Data are presented as mean ± SEM in the graphs; p values are from Student’s two-tailed t test to compare two sets

of data. For multiple comparisons, which were done using one-way analysis of variance analysis, p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. The authors would like to thank Y. Yu, A. Nishiyama, B. Kim, W. Liu, L. Liu, C. Shen, Melinda K. Duncan, and A. Francis and A. Conidi for technical support. We thank C. Stiles, J. Svaren, S. Yoon, E. Olson, J. Johnson, J. Li, E. Hurlock, N. Ma, and O. Barca-Mayo for critical comments and suggestions. This study was funded in Tryptophan synthase part by grants from the National Institutes of Health (R01NS072427) and the National Multiple Sclerosis Society (RG3978) (to Q.R.L.) and the Research Council of Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (OT-09/053 and GOA-11/012), FWO-V (G.0954.11N to D.H. and E.S.), the Queen Elisabeth Medical Foundation (GSKE 1113) and Interuniversity Attraction Poles (IUAP 6/20), and the type 3 large-infrastructure support InfraMouse by the Hercules Foundation (to D.H.). “
“Peripheral nerves are complex structures consisting of motor, sensory and autonomic neurons, which connect tissues and organs to the central nervous system (CNS).

E. and U.H., unpublished data). Regardless, aru and both the PI3K/Akt and Egfr/Erk pathways are needed during development to establish normal ethanol sensitivity. Yet it is likely that they function in multiple processes taking place at more than a single developmental period. Clearly, aru (this work) and Cisplatin solubility dmso PI3K ( Martín-Peña et al., 2006) affect both larval and adult nervous system development, as alteration of synapse number is evident upon their genetic manipulation. Of note, although a role for Erk in bouton growth at the larval NMJ has been described ( Koh et al.,

2002), its true function remains unclear ( Wairkar et al., 2009). Our genetic epistasis experiments between Erk, PI3K, and aru can be interpreted in various non-mutually exclusive ways. One interpretation is that aru function may be required earlier in development than either the Egfr/Erk or PI3K/Akt pathways, its absence thus precluding the normal execution of these pathways’ functions. An alternative interpretation is that aru functions downstream of the Egfr/Erk and PI3K/Akt pathways, but does so in different neurons/brain circuits (see below). With regard to intracellular mechanisms, although activation of the Egfr can stimulate the PI3K pathway (Engelman et al., 2006), we found that analogous panneuronal manipulations (i.e.,

activation or inhibition) of these two pathways lead to opposite effects on ethanol sensitivity. These observations suggest that, in this context, PF-01367338 solubility dmso Egfr overexpression does not necessarily activate PI3K, and that Egfr/Erk and PI3K/Akt pathways predominantly function in different neurons/neural circuits. Indeed, Egfr overexpression in dopaminergic neurons, but not PDF neurons ( Corl et al., 2009), reduces ethanol Thymidine kinase sensitivity. Conversely, PI3K overexpression in PDF, but not the dopaminergic neurons, enhances ethanol sensitivity (this work). aru is expressed in PDF neurons ( Kula-Eversole et al., 2010) and we show that its knockdown specifically in these neurons affects ethanol sensitivity. In contrast, aru knockdown in dopaminergic neurons was inconsequential. Thus, while aru is needed for the effects of panneuronal Egfr/Erk

overexpression/activation, it does not appear to be a target of this pathway in dopaminergic neurons or the insulin-producing cells, two loci where Egfr overexpression affects ethanol sensitivity ( Corl et al., 2009 and Corl et al., 2005). Therefore, the Egfr/Erk pathway probably activates aru in neurons we have yet to identify. In summary, given that Aru is an adaptor protein with the potential to interact with multiple partners, we hypothesize that Aru carries out two distinct functions mediated by two different pathways in separable neuroanatomical loci. As aru and the Egfr/Erk and PI3K/Akt pathways are quite ubiquitously expressed, it is likely that Aru binding partners are context dependent and that these partners contribute to the different aru-mediated mechanisms affecting ethanol sensitivity.

Neither study found a statistically or clinically significant effect of the intervention on any of the outcome measures which included ankle dorsiflexion range, foot posture, and ankle strength. Interestingly, participants in one of the studies anecdotally reported improvement in

motor activities after wearing the splint (Refshauge et al 2006). Both studies reported AT13387 molecular weight technical difficulties with the prefabricated splint falling off at night, which may have resulted in insufficient duration or intensity of the stretch (Redmond 2004, Refshauge et al 2006). Serial casting is also employed to increase ankle dorsiflexion range in children and young adults with Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease. Typically, a below-knee cast is Libraries applied to lengthen the triceps surae and worn for 24 hours a day. Cast changes are made every three to seven days, each aiming to achieve a greater range of ankle dorsiflexion than the previous cast, and continued until the desired range of ankle dorsiflexion is obtained. Although there have been no randomised trials of serial casting in people with Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, there have been studies in other neurological conditions such find protocol as traumatic brain injury (Moseley 1997, Moseley et al 2008). While significant gains in ankle dorsiflexion range occurred in these studies, gains were generally lost once the cast was removed. Clinically, serial casting is not always well tolerated by individuals with Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease. Wearing

casts full-time can be uncomfortable and inconvenient, particularly for more active children and young adults (Refshauge et al 2006). In addition, many people with this disease have sensory impairment, which is thought to increase the risk of developing pressure areas if casts are worn continuously.

In patients at risk of such complications, a removable serial night cast can be fabricated whereby the cast is applied according to the principles of serial casting, but bi-valved and worn only at night. However there are no data to support its use in Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease. Therefore, the specific research question ADP ribosylation factor for this study was: Does 4 weeks of serial night casting followed by 4 weeks of stretching of the gastrocnemius and soleus improve ankle dorsiflexion range, mobility and balance, and reduce foot deformity, falls, and self-reported activity limitations compared with no intervention in children and young adults with Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease? A randomised trial with assessor blinding and intention-totreat analysis was conducted. People with Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease were recruited from the neurogenetics and peripheral neuropathy clinics at a large tertiary children’s hospital in Australia. After baseline measures were collected, the treating physiotherapist telephoned the administrative assistant to obtain the participant’s random allocation. The randomisation sequence was computer-generated by an offsite administrative assistant who had no further involvement in the study.