This antibody detected ~43 KDa protein bands. Expression of UBE2Q2 Protein in Colorectal

Tissues Tissues from the cancerous part of 43 colorectal tumors along with their normal counterparts were subjected to western blot analysis for the UBE2Q2 protein. The individual characteristics of the colorectal cancers are summarized in table 1. Increased levels of UBE2Q2 immunoreactivity were observed in the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical cancerous tissues related to 28 (65.11%) of the specimens when compared with their corresponding normal tissues (figure 3). No significant changes were observed in the cancerous cells of 10 (23.26%) of the specimens as compared with their corresponding normal tissues (figure 3). Five (11.63%) of the samples showed lower expression levels of UBE2Q2 in their affected cells. UBE2Q2 bands in western blots from 43 cancerous and their corresponding Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical normal tissues revealed intensities of respectively 4957±591 and 3305±451 (mean±SEM) arbitrary units. These differences were statistically significant at P<0.001 (paired t test). Table 1 Clinicopathologic information of the 43 patients with colorectal

cancer Figure 3 Expression of UBE2Q2 in colorectial Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical tumors and their corresponding normal tissues. A) Immunoblot analysis using UBE2Q2 antibody (detecting ~43 KDa protein bands) against the extracts from four normal human colorectal tissue samples (N) and their corresponding … Discussion Carcinogenesis in CRC is a multistep event Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical that includes a progressive accumulation of genetic alterations in multiple genes whose protein products are regulated by the UPS.3,4 Here, we report the expression pattern of a novel E2-conjugating enzyme, UBE2Q2, in colorectal carcinoma cell lines and colorectal PF299 price primary tumors. Our results showed that all the colorectal carcinoma cell lines tested express UBE2Q2 protein and also its transcript. Under our experimental conditions, the line Caco2 showed the highest levels of both UBE2Q2 mRNA and protein, whereas SW742, LS180, and SW1116 showed

Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical relatively lower levels of expression. This difference may be due to the variation in the characteristics of these cell lines. There are properties in each cell line which are used to classify second CRC cell lines such as morphological markers, gland formation, and modal chromosome number.22,23 Thus, SW1116, which expresses low levels of UBE2Q2, falls into Group III of the classification made by Drewinko et al.,22 while a high UBE2Q2-expressing cell, like SW48, corresponds to Group I of the same classification. The high and low UBE2Q2-expressing cells also differ in other features such as amounts of production of growth factors and carcinoembrionic antigen (CEA).24 The production of CEA and some growth factors such as TGF-α, TGF-β, and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-like material is significantly higher in SW742 cell line.

During this second visit, we tracked eye movements while each child sat 50 cm in front of a monitor, observing the identical sequence of faces as they saw previously in the scanner. Eye movements were calibrated for each subject and confirmed before and after the gaze data. Using an infrared Tobii 1750 eye tracking system (Tobii Technology), which calculates visual fixation within 1 cm of accuracy, we compared the amount

of time subjects spent looking at the face and at the eyes, both in raw numbers and in percentage of total trial time spent fixating in the eye region. The results of these analyses indicate that the use of fixation crosses Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical at the eye level was successful in drawing attention to the eye region during stimulus presentation as no significant see more differences were found between the groups in the amount of time spent looking at the eyes either during direct (t = 0.63, P>0.50) or indirect (t = 0.85, P>0.40) gaze, nor in the amount of overall looking time at the faces overall (all Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical P-values >0.30). fMRI data acquisition Imaging was performed using a 3T Siemens Allegra MRI scanner. For each subject, we acquired 270 interleaved functional T2*-weighted echoplanar images (EPI) [slice thickness, 3 mm/1mm gap; 36

axial slices covering whole brain volume; repetition time (TR), 2 sec; echo time (TE), 25 msec; flip angle, 90°; matrix, 64 × 64; field of view (FOV), 20 cm]. Two additional Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical volumes Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical were discarded at the beginning of each run to allow for T1 equilibrium effects. In addition, a T2-weighted matched-bandwidth high-resolution anatomical scan (same slice prescription as EPI) was acquired for each subject (TR: 5 sec; TE: 33 msec; matrix size: 128 × 128; FOV: 20 cm) for registration purposes into a Talairach-compatible MR atlas (Woods et al. 1999). fMRI data analysis All functional images were registered using Automated Image Registration (AIR; Woods et al. 1998), whereby EPI images were first registered to the matched-bandwidth high-resolution structural image for a given subject and normalized into a Talairach-compatible

Thiamine-diphosphate kinase MR atlas Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical (Woods et al. 1999). Images were spatially smoothed using a 6 mm full-width half-maximum Gaussian kernel. Finally, for each subject, mean head motion was computed using AIR by averaging the displacements across all voxels in all functional images relative to their mean position during the scans (Woods et al. 2003), and it was confirmed that there were no differences in head motion between the groups. Statistical analyses were performed using SPM99 (Wellcome Department of Cognitive Neurology, London, UK; http://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm). For each comparison of interest, we conducted within- and between-group random effects analyses using one- and two-sample t-tests, respectively, and defined statistical significance at a signal intensity magnitude of P < 0.

The lesion was causing displacement of the bowel loops and abutting the anterior abdominal wall with well-maintained planes (Figure 1). The mesenteric vessels were posterior to the lesion. No calcification was evident. Small, rounded, non-enhancing lesions click here suggestive of simple cysts were seen in both kidneys. MRI showed a large lobulated mass lesion anterior to the left psoas, appearing hypointense on T1WI and heterogeneously hyperintense on T2WI.

Bowel loops were displaced anteriorly. Biochemistry panel was within Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical normal limits. Figure 1 Heterogeneously enhancing lesion placed anterior to the mesenteric vessels. The patient was taken up for surgery after obtaining fitness for general anaesthesia. On laparotomy, a large, multilobulated tumour approximately 20 cm × 20 cm in size was seen arising from the mesentery of the jejunum. The overlying jejunal loop was densely adherent to the tumour. The tumour was not invading the superior mesenteric vessel or its main Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical branches.

The rest of the small bowel loops were pushed to the right lower quadrant and the pelvis. The small bowel along with the growth was eviscerated and the main feeding vessel was located. The superior mesenteric vessels were identified AT AN Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical EARLY STAGE and 2 feet of the jejunum with its involved mesentery was resected just 10 cm distal to the duodenojejunal flexure. A hand-sewn single layer anastomosis was performed to restore bowel continuity. The rest of the visualized viscera and bowel were Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical grossly normal. No lymphadenopathy was noted. The tumour weighed approximately 1.8 kilograms (Figure 2). The cut surface had a variegated appearance with yellow/tan areas and regions of necrosis. On histopathological examination the specimen showed features suggestive Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of pleomorphic sarcoma. The tumour showed

high mitotic activity, marked pleomorphism and intranuclear inclusions. A large number of giant cells were noted with a few showing multivacuolated cytoplasm with peripherally compressed nuclei. Tumour cells were positive for S-100 and negative for SMA/Desmin. Figure 2 Large multilobulated tumour arising from the jejunal mesentery. This patient developed an anastomotic leak on the 5th post-operative day as evidenced by bilious effluent in the intra-abdominal drain which was controlled by next conservative management. The patient was advised postoperative radiotherapy and chemotherapy but he refused any further treatment and left against medical advice. Discussion In comparison with the retroperitoneal liposarcoma, the primary mesenteric liposarcoma is extremely rare and is treated by aggressive surgical management i.e. wide excision with adequate margins (in the absence of distant metastases). Among the malignant mesenteric tumours, lymphoma is most common followed by leiomyosarcoma. Occurring usually in the 5th to 7th decades, the incidence has been seen to be slightly higher in males (15).

However, a recent population-based study suggests that, older individuals treated with high-dose SGAs may be at similar risk of EPS to patients treated with FGAs.4 The current trend in clinical practice is to eliminate FGAs as far as possible, and to employ SGAs as the first-line medication for the treatment, of acute schizophrenic Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical psychosis. This trend has not been implemented worldwide because of economic considerations,

given the major price differences between SGAs and FGAs, and FGAs are still widely prescribed. The results of recent, studies such as CATIE3 raise the important, consideration that, FGAs may have a place in the treatment of schizophrenia, subject to appropriate risk -benefit, considerations. Predictors of susceptibility to EPS and TD, in the case of the FGAs, and to GW9662 molecular weight weight gain and

Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical metabolic adverse effects, in the case of SGAs, could radically alter clinical practice, allowing FGAs or SGAs to be prescribed in accordance with the risk profile of the individual patient. The availability of predictors of therapeutic response to FGAs and SGAs would further improve the risk-benefit ratio. Genetic predictors are highly feasible in this context, and are the focus of intensive research in the field of psychiatric pharmacogenetics. Genetic factors that, influence drug metabolism Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical (pharmacokinetics) and molecular targets of drug action (pharmacodynamics) may be implicated separately or interactively in the pharmacogenetic profile of a patient in relation to a particular class of drugs. Extensive research is needed in order to identify the genes involved, and Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the precise variants within these genes that underlie interindividual variability. In the case of pharmacokinetic factors, the underlying genetic cause is often a mutation in a single gene, such as a member of the

extended cytochrome P450 family, which is pivotally involved in the metabolism of psychotropic drugs.5 Pharmacodynamic targets include receptors or transporters to which the drugs bind. Variants in these PAK6 genes are more Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical likely to be of small effect with several different, loci being involved, each contributing to the phenotype to a small and variable degree. This type of polygenic effect is difficult, to define clinically, and is sensitive to spurious influences. Most, of the pharmacogenetic effects that are widely relevant are likely to be polygenic, requiring significant, research efforts to generate and replicate data that will ultimately be clinically useful. In this paper, we will consider key issues that need to be taken into consideration in designing and interpreting pharmacogenetic studies of antipsychotic drugs. Examples will be given from a series of studies that has identified several genes involved in susceptibility to TD in patients treated with FGAs for an extended period.

As the findings demonstrate, in some cases CRSDs might be taken into consideration as a possible side effect. When iatrogenic CRSD is suspected, changing therapy and/or adding melatonin might be initiated. CRSDs ami psychiatric misdiagnosis Difficulties in buy GSK2656157 daytime functioning are one of the prominent characteristics of CRSDs. Individuals with CRSDs frequently fall to

adjust to the activity hours accepted in most social, occupational, and academic settings, due to incompatibility of their internal biological rhythms with the environmental timetable. Consider, for example, a patient with DSPS who is Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical expected to arrive at his workplace by 8 or 9 am. In order to fulfill this requirement, this individual is forced to wake up at what might be the middle of his internal night. It is not surprising, therefore, that he will be frequently late and/or absent, a pattern that will most likely subject him to disciplinary actions up to dismissal.

If, however, he manages to meet the attendance Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical standards, his performance will be liable to the detrimental effects of sleep loss and time of day. In childhood Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and adolescence, when CRSDs usually emerge, the impairment of daytime functioning can be even more remarkable than in adults. Unlike adults, who can at times choose a lifestyle that corresponds to their sleep-wake cycle, the activity hours of persons of younger age are constrained by a strictly predetermined school timetable.

The inability to adjust to this timetable may be associated with deteriorated school performance. In a recent study, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical we found that the vast majority of young patients with DSPS complained of frequent late arrivals and absences at school, underachievement, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and behavioral/social difficulties. Importantly, treatment with melatonin significantly reduced the number of children and adolescents complaining of malfunctioning at school.63 In some cases, the daytime functional difficulties might be severe enough to be mistakenly interpreted as symptoms of psychiatric disorders. A case of a 14-year-old boy provides a dramatic Illustration only of such a scenario.64 During the 4 years prior to his referral to our sleep clinic, the patient suffered from major functioning difficulties, including conflicts with teachers, parents, and peers. At the age of 12, the patient dropped out of school and was sent to an inpatient chlld-psychiatry center. Three months of psychiatric evaluation yielded diagnoses of atypical depressive disorder with possible schizotypal personality disorder. Due to excessive daytime sleepiness, he was referred to our sleep clinic for assessment of a potential sleep disorder. A thorough sleep study revealed that the patient had a 26-h sleepwake schedule and dissociation between oral temperature and salivary melatonin rhythms.

A multiplicity of gene-based haplotypes Similar observations were made for haplotypes. Potentially large numbers of haplotypes per gene as well #http://www.selleckchem.com/products/ipi-145-ink1197.html randurls[1|1|,|CHEM1|]# as a notable variability of these numbers were observed. Absolute numbers of haplotypes described

to date range from 2 to 8824-29,31-34,39,58,59 up to 14070; average numbers are about 14 haplotypes per gene (range 2-53) in 82 individuals from four populations in the most, comprehensive survey,33 8 haplotypes Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical per gene (range 4-15) in about 40 to 60 individuals from one population of European descent,46 70 haplotypes per gene (range 16-140) in an average of about 309 individuals (range 141-469) from one population of European descent70; the average numbers of SNPs per gene in these studies were 12,46 12.5,33 and 31.70 Thus, the number of haplotypes appears to increase dramatically with the number of individuals and SNPs analyzed,38 and the upper end is not yet in sight; sequenced or scanned44 segments ranged in average from 2.3 kb33 to 4.9 kb70 to 15 kb per gene.46 At the other end of the spectrum is the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical resolution into haplotypes as described in the analysis of the LPL gene, an important, potential genetic risk factor for

cardiovascular disease; about 9.7 kb of contiguous gene sequence including six of nine exons and significant, fractions of intronic sequence were systematically Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical compared in 71 individuals from three populations.31 Eighty-eight distinct haplotypes were determined from 88 segregating sites; only three of the 88 haplotypes were detectable in all three

populations and 21, 25, and Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical 35 haplotypes were found unique to one of the three populations, respectively.38 Taken together, in analogy to genetic variation at the DNA sequence level, a notable variability of variability can be observed. The relationship between the number of variants and number of underlying haplotypes seems to vary significantly,33,39,70 with the number of haplotypes being similar, much larger (up to eightfold)25,27,29,33,65,70 or significantly smaller32-34,64 than the number of SNPs. On average though, a linear relationship between the number of individual Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical SNPs within a gene and the number of resulting haplotypes was observed in the most, comprehensive survey.33 In addition, a slightly higher average number of haplotypes per gene (by a factor of 1.1) than number of SNPs was observed.33 The fact that the number of haplotypes enough is greater than the number of SNPs indicates that, some degree of recombination and recurrent mutation may have occurred within these genes,33 which has also been emphasized in other studies.25-27,34,38 These analyses demonstrate that the decomposition of genes into different haplotypes, the so-called gene-based haplotype diversity, is remarkable. In fact, many genes do not, have one predominant haplotype at all, and the total fraction of rare haplotypes contributing to the picture may be significant.

e., induced) activity, and (ii) for induced theta activity, the trial-averaged ERP waveform was first subtracted from each single trial data,

with the residual being transformed to the TF domain. The resultant single trial TF surfaces were then averaged across trials to produce a TF representation of the event-related nonphase-locked TF activity. With these methods, one evoked TF representation and one induced TF representation were produced for each electrode site for each subject. To confirm the non-stimulus-phase-locked Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical nature of the induced theta activity, intertrial coherence (ITC), a measure of the extent to which phase locking occurs across trials, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical was also calculated for induced theta at each electrode for each subject. Based on visual inspection of the grand-averaged evoked and induced

TF representations, poststimulus TF regions of interest (TFROIs), encompassing the theta-frequency band, were selected. The TF power was averaged within each of these TFROIs. For induced activity, in addition to Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the poststimulus TFROI, a corresponding prestimulus TFROI was also selected, covering the same frequency range as the poststimulus TFROI, but with a time window occurring prior to target stimulus onset. This prestimulus TFROI was utilized as a reference for comparing event-related changes in poststimulus power, that is, ERS/event-related desynchronization, which was computed as the log ratio of the poststimulus power to the prestimulus power (see Andrew and Fein 2010b, for a more detailed description). To examine resting theta power, the resting EEG data were first Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical corrected for ocular artifacts, then divided into 1024-msec half-overlapping epochs (i.e.,

the first 512 msec of each epoch Alisertib order overlapped with the last 512 msec of the preceding epoch). Epochs with EOG amplitude >75 μV were eliminated from further processing. Fourier transform-based spectral estimation, using Welch’s periodogram method, was then applied to each artifact-free epoch using a Hamming Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical window, resulting in power spectra with 1-Hz resolution. The mean absolute power within the same theta-frequency range used in the evoked and induced TF analyses (3–6 Hz, see below) was then calculated for each electrode site. Because the distribution of Bay 11-7085 theta power was skewed, the data were log transformed. Statistical analysis All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL). The measures submitted to statistical analysis were (1) evoked theta power (log-transformed) averaged over electrodes Pz and CPz and (2) induced theta activity (theta ERS) averaged over electrodes FCz and Cz. These electrodes were those within which each of the measures was found to be maximal, both in the current study and in previous reports (e.g., Jones et al.

Katz and colleagues studied the differential effects of OXY-IR versus placebo on memory.21 In a double-blind study, OXY-IR (5–10 mg) caused significant cognitive decrements on 7 of 15 cognitive measures. In a 3-week, randomized, double-blind study, Kay and colleagues noted that OXY-ER resulted in significant memory deterioration compared with placebo, as measured by delayed recall on the Name-Face Association Test at week 3 (mean differences, −1.30; P = .011).22 The dose of OXY-ER used was Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical 10 mg once daily at week 1, increased to 15 mg daily at week 2, and 20 mg daily by week 3. The drop in cognitive

function was first measured as early as 1 week on the 10-mg dose. In contrast to the high-dose OXY-ER, Lackner and associates studied low-dose OXY-ER 5 mg in a randomized, placebo-controlled trial in cognitively impaired female nursing home residents.23 Low-dose OXY-ER was well tolerated and was found to have no significant change in cognitive function scores at all time points between OXY-ER and placebo. Recently, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical OXY-IR, OXY-OTG, and placebo were evaluated Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in a short comparative study using cognitive and psychomotor testing.24 OXY-IR demonstrated evidence of impairment

on specific measures of recent memory versus placebo, whereas OXY-OTG and placebo were similar. Despite its limitations, this trial raises the question of whether the CNS effects of oxybutynin could be related to the oxybutynin serum concentration and/or the metabolite DEO.25,26 Clinical trial data support this concept in that transdermal delivery of oxybutynin has the lowest somnolent Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical (0.3%) and dizziness (1.5%) rate of all delivery methods. Until future research is completed to further substantiate this notion, patients at risk for cognitive impairment should be monitored closely with all forms of oxybutynin. Alternative Non-FDA-Approved Delivery Methods In an effort to check details reduce the side effects of oral oxybutynin, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical rectal suppositories and direct bladder instillation of oxybutynin have been studied.27–29 These nontraditional delivery methods

also avoid the presystemic metabolism of oxybutynin and consequently reduce the plasma concentration of DEO. Most of the intravesical Thymidine kinase oxybutynin trials have involved adults and children with neurogenic OAB who were using intermittent catheterization. Several clinical studies have demonstrated significant clinical urodynamic effects including decreased detrusor hyper-reflexia, increased maximum bladder capacity, and decreased detrusor pressure at bladder capacity in neurogenic OAB.30–33 Although the optimum dose for intravesical instillation has not been determined, published studies suggest that an oral dose of 0.2 mg/kg daily (average, 10 mg daily) can be safely used intravesically.29,31 Crushed OXY-IR pills are dissolved in sterile water or saline in concentrations of 5 mg/mL.

The apomorphine-induced contralateral rotation test was used to demonstrate therapeutic efficacy. In the negative control group administered with the 951-THLs targeted with the non-specific IgG2a, the drug-induced rotation increased in all animals [30]. On the contrary, in the rats injected with the 951-THLs targeted with the TfRMAb, there was an 82% reduction in the apomorphine-induced contralateral

rotations [30]. The therapeutic effect of the TH gene replacement was correlated with the levels of TH Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical determined by enzyme activity (Table 2) or Src inhibitor immunocytochemistry (Figure 4). The latter was performed in coronal sections of brain and showed complete normalization of the immunoreactive TH in the striatum of 6-OHDA lesioned rats 3 days after a single injection of the gene therapy (Figures 4(a)–4(c)). In contrast, lesioned control animals treated with

the THLs targeted with the non-specific IgG2a isotype control antibody show Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical a marked reduction in striatal immunoreactive TH (Figures 4(d)–4(f)). Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical The levels of the TH enzyme activity were also normalized in the ipsilateral striatum (Table 2). Additional studies were performed in the 6-OHDA PD rat model with THLs carrying the TH gene under the widely read SV40 promoter, that is, clone 877 (Table 2) [22]. Similar data were obtained in both the restoration of the TH expression pattern in brain and in the reduction of the apomorphine-induced contralateral rotation [22]. The only difference

between the studies Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical performed with the TH expression plasmid driven by the SV40 promoter, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical or the Gfap promoter, was a 10-fold increase in the levels of TH activity in liver of animals injected with the SV40-TH construct, which is not seen with the Gfap-TH plasmid (Table 2 and Figure 2). The stability of the TH is associated with the availability of the biopterin cofactor, and the expression of from the TH enzyme is found in regions of the brain that express GTP cyclohydrolase 1 (GTPCH) [42–44]. The GTPCH is also expressed in peripheral tissues, like liver [45], which supports the increased expression in liver TH activity when the TH transgene is driven by the SV40 promoter (Table 2) [22]. The gene therapy in this PD model with either SV40- or Gfap-TH plasmids produced normalization of the expression pattern of TH and without expression of supranormal levels of TH activity (Table 2) [22, 30]. This observation parallels findings observed in TH transgenic mice, which showed only a minor increase in either immunoreactive TH or TH activity in striatum despite a 50-fold increase in the level of TH mRNA in the substantia nigra [46].

Digital video images of the underside of mice were recorded at ˜150 frames per sec. Each image represents ˜7 msec of locomotion; the paw area indicates the temporal placement of the paw relative to the treadmill belt. The color images were converted to their binary matrix equivalents and the areas of the approaching

or retreating paws relative to the belt and camera were calculated throughout each stride. The plotted area of each digital paw print (paw contact area) imaged sequentially in time provides a dynamic gait signal, representing the temporal record of paw placement Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical relative to the treadmill belt. Each gait signal for each limb comprises a stride duration that includes the stance duration when the paw of a limb is in contact with the walking

surface, plus the swing duration when the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical paw of the same limb is not in contact with the walking surface. Stance duration was further selleck screening library subdivided into braking duration (defined as increasing paw contact area over time) and propulsion duration (defined as decreasing paw contact area over time). Stride frequency was calculated from the number of gait signals (see above) over time (Fig. ​(Fig.2a).2a). Stride length was calculated from the following equation: speed = stride frequency X stride Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical length. Stance widths and paw placement angles at full stance were obtained by fitting ellipses to the paws and determining the centers, vertices, and major axes of the ellipses. Forelimb and hind limb stance widths were calculated as the perpendicular distance between the major axis of the left and right fore paw images and between the major axis of the

left and right hind paw images during peak stance. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Paw placement angle was calculated as the angle that the long axis of a paw makes with the direction of motion of the animal during peak stance (Fig. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical ​(Fig.2b).2b). Gait data were collected and pooled from both the left and right forelimbs, and the left and right hindlimbs. Figure 2 (A) Lateral view of a right hind paw during one stride depicting instances of time in swing and stance. Stance is comprised of braking and propulsion. (B) Paw Placement Angle is measured between the long axis through the hind paw and a line drawn through … Measures of stride-to-stride variability (gait variability) for stride length, stance of width, and paw placement angle were determined as the standard deviation and the coefficient of variation (CV). The standard deviation reflects the dispersion about the average value for a parameter. CV, expressed as a%, was calculated from the following equation: 100× standard deviation/mean value. The maximal rates of change of area with respect to time, during the braking phase (+dA/dtmax) and during the propulsion phase (−dA/dtmin) of stance, were also determined.