To explore the clonal relationships among these strains and the LY3023414 order other strains, we used molecular typing methods to compare the strains at the genome level. In the PFGE analysis, the patterns of the six O139 pigment-producing strains were compared with the other nontoxigenic O139 strains in our V. cholerae PFGE database, which covers the O139 strains

isolated in China from 1993 and the O1 strains isolated from 1961. The cluster analysis (Figure 5) showed that all of the 11 pigment-producing strains could be grouped together and separated from other non-pigment-producing strains, including some strains isolated in the same year and from the same province as the pigment-producing strains. Strain 3182 was not included in the PFGE analysis since it has an O1 serogroup. Figure 5 The PFGE phylogenetic tree of the O139 pigment producing strains and other O139 non-toxigenic selleck compound strains. Strains marked with black square are pigment producing strains and white square are non-pigment producing strains which are included in the

VC1344-VC1347 sequence analysis. Previously, we analyzed the ribotyping polymorphism of O139 isolates collected since O139 cholera appeared in China [27]. Here, we also determined the ribotypes of these pigment-producing strains. Hybridization showed that all of the O139 pigment-producing strains had the same ribotype, which was the same as the rb4 type identified in our previous study. The El Tor strain 3182 has a similar pattern to

the toxigenic strain N16961. 4. Discussion Many environmental microbes produce melanins, and melanin pigments are also an inherent phenotype of a broad range of eukaryotic microorganisms. The melanin in these strains may confer resistance to unfavorable environmental factors, host immunity, and even play a role in virulence expression. Therefore, melanin may confer a survival advantage on these natural pigment-producing V. cholerae strains in the estuary niche, and pathogenicity in the host. Previously, V. cholerae strains with a pigmented phenotype were induced under stress or by chemical mutagenesis. In this study, we describe certain O139 and O1 isolates Teicoplanin that can produce pigment under normal experimental growth conditions. Though the mutations in these O1 and O139 pigment-producing strains are different, both of them involve the dysfunction of HGO, the product of the VC1345 gene of V. cholerae. In our study, gene complementation of the mutant VC1345 confirmed the role of its dysfunction in pigment production. As a consequence, the disruption of the balance between the enzymes encoded by VC1344 and VC1345 causes homogentisate accumulation and spontaneous oxidation. The pigment production mechanism in these wild-type strains is same as in the chemically induced pigmented mutants [15, 18].