Figure 2 Topography (a), corresponding potential images (b), and one-dimensional line profile (c) of the CZTSSe thin film. Conductive atomic force microscopy Figure  3 shows topography, click here current map, and the line profiles of the CZTSSe thin film. Local current flows up to larger than 6 nA on GBs in the CZTSSe thin film. In case of CIGS, magnitude of current showed about 2 nA under

the sample external voltage of 0.2 V [27]. The CZTSSe thin film exhibits local current flowing mostly near the GBs as displayed in Figure  3c. Local current routes are formed near the GBs of the CZTSSe thin film. The one-dimensional line profile shows the current flows at the edge of the grains. Similar current distribution was observed in the GBs of the CIGS thin films [28, 29]. Azulay et al. proposed that higher dark EGFR inhibitors cancer current flow through the GBs because of higher hole mobility on the GBs and then inversion of the dominant carrier type at the GBs [29]. Therefore, electrons can become dominant carriers in GBs and drift along GBs of the CIGS thin films [27, 29]. From C-AFM measurement, we can suggest that collected minority carriers form local current route through the near PI3K inhibitor GBs in the case of the CZTSSe thin film, indicating that it is possible that carrier type inversion

can also happen in the CZTSSe thin films. Figure 3 Topography (a), corresponding current-map images (b), and one-dimensional line profile (c) of the CZTSSe thin film. From the measurement results of

KPFM and C-AFM, we found positive potential on the most of GBs and demonstrated downward band bending in the CZTSSe thin film. On the other hand, the negative potential on the GBs is linked to the upward band Olopatadine bending. A model of surface potential and carrier transport is described in Figure  4. The positively charged GBs play a role to be a conduction path and collect minority carriers. However, the defects in the GBs are not well known yet. So, the carriers can be trapped in the defects near the GBs [30], which may be drawbacks for high efficiency of the CZTSSe solar cells. The model of band diagram depends on charged GBs can be affected by film properties such as composition and conversion efficiency [20]. It is indispensible to understand the defect chemistry and transport near GBs of the CZTSSe. If all the understandings are well established and proper processing methods are developed, polycrystalline kesterite thin films are beneficial to device performance for solar cells. Figure 4 A proposed band bending near the GBs of the CZTSSe thin films. The band diagram also accounts for the minority carrier transport near the GBs. Conclusions We measured surface potential and current transport of the CZTSSe thin film with Kelvin probe force microscopy and conductive atomic force microscopy, respectively.