Before the physical demarcation of the GMR’s marine zoning, the Charles Darwin Foundation (CDF), a locally-based international NGO that provides scientific advice to the GNP and PMB, conducted a broad-scale subtidal independent survey in 2000–2001 [22]. Its main aims were to define the ecological baseline of each management zone before the physical demarcation of the GMR’s zoning, and to clarify broad-scale marine biogeographical patterns across

Galapagos [27]. Three main results were obtained by Edgar et al. [22]: (1) the mean sea Ruxolitinib cucumber density in the western sector of Galapagos, the most productive sector of this species, was three times higher in zones open to fishing (14±4.2 ind 100 m−2) in comparison with conservation zones (42.2±10.9 ind 100 m−2); (2) the mean density of spiny lobster and Galapagos grouper was not different between management zones; (3) the mean shark density was five times higher in tourism zones in comparison with conservation and fishing zones. These results reflected the bias associated with the selection and distribution of no-take zones within GMR [22]; i.e., that the compromises inherent in their selection led to their having

find more low intrinsic densities of sea cucumbers and high densities of large pelagics. These human dimensions were dominant in the actual selection of no-take zones, rather than more ecologically-oriented aspects. For example, Edgar et al. [27] showed that Galapagos coastal waters were best divided into five marine bioregions referred to as far-northern, northern, south-eastern, western and Elizabeth—the latter being a bioregion located in the western part of Isabela Island, whose proportion of endemic species is anomalously high. As a result, these authors argue for a higher level of protection of the far-northern and Elizabeth bioregions, which are not properly represented and conserved by the

current GMR’s zoning design. While such aspects were not built into the current marine zoning design (and would need Benzatropine to be better incorporated in any future adaptation of the design), the results obtained by Edgar et al. [27] were used by the zoning commission, jointly with the GMR’s approved zoning design and the advice of external consultants, to develop a long term ecological subtidal monitoring program (ESMP). This program was designed to evaluate spatial and temporal patterns of change in coastal marine ecosystems across the different bio-geographic regions in the GMR, before and after zoning implementation, and in relation to oceanographic, climate and human impacts [28]. In October 2004, the PMB reviewed and approved the ESMP proposal. The responsibility to manage the ESMP was given to the CDF. Since then, CDF scientists have compiled a unique 12-year bio-physical dataset to support an assessment of the management effectiveness of the zoning. The ESMP is mostly funded by international aid agencies and NGOs.