Addition of exogenous astrocytes, which are known to supply essential factors for synaptogenesis in other primary neuron culture models (Eroglu and Hydroxychloroquine Barres, 2010 and Ullian et al., 2004), “rescued” this phenotype. More recently, the issue of functional maturity has also been addressed by altering the composition of the neurogenic factor cocktail. For instance, transduction of a cocktail of factors that includes miR-124—a highly expressed neuronal microRNA that modulates expression of antineuronal gene regulatory factors, such as REST, during CNS development (Ambasudhan et al., 2011) —appeared effective in generating mature neurons with evidence of spontaneous synaptic activity.

In a related approach, repression of poly-pyrimidine-tract binding protein (PTB), which is

thought to normally oppose the action of miR-124, appeared sufficient to convert fibroblasts to a neuronal phenotype (Xue et al., 2013). Circumventing the need for ASCL1 or other additional exogenous regulatory factors significantly simplifies the conversion process. Extrinsic cues also play a major regulatory role in the neuronal fate conversion process. Withdrawal of serum, and inclusion of neurotrophic factors, is a common feature in the directed reprogramming protocols. Small molecule antagonists of glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) and SMAD signaling—signaling pathways implicated in CNS neurogenesis in vivo—have been Ulixertinib purchase reported to significantly improve the efficiency of reprogramming (Ladewig et al., 2012). Addition of exogenous primary astrocytes, which likely provide essential factors for synaptic maturation (Ullian et al., 2004), effectively promote synaptic activity in the iN cultures (Pang et al., 2011, Qiang et al., 2011, Vierbuchen from et al., 2010 and Yoo et al., 2011). A reduction in oxygen tension to physiological levels (Davila et al., 2013) may also promote the generation of mature neurons in vitro

by directed conversion. A particularly intriguing and potentially clinically relevant application is the directed conversion of nonneuronal cells to neurons in the adult CNS environment in vivo. In the adult mammalian CNS, switching cell fates has appeared to be particularly restricted, even from one neuronal type to another, although such switching has been described during late development (Rouaux and Arlotta, 2013). Genetic studies in the nematode C. elegans have achieved the efficient in vivo directed conversion of mature germ cells directly into neurons, by elimination of chromatin regulatory factors ( Tursun et al., 2011); it is unclear whether such a strategy would promote directed fate interconversion in the adult mammalian CNS. Another drawback to the directed generation of mature, postmitotic hiNs, is that these cells cannot be further propagated.