, 2010 and Iaria et al., 2009). The first reported case (Iaria et al., 2009) was a 43-year-old woman (Pt1) who had no brain injury or psychiatric disease, but showed persistent difficulty in topographical orientation. Subsequently, Bianchini et al. (2010) described a 22-year-old man (F.G.) who showed a more pervasive disorder including almost all processes involved in topographical knowledge and environmental navigation. Specifically, Pt1 had a severe deficit in the formation of the mental map of the environment;

however, once she had acquired such a map through overtraining, her performance on the retrieval task was similar to that of a control group. According to Iaria et al. (2009) these findings point to an impairment specific to the acquisition rather than the retrieval and use of a mental representation of the environment. Furthermore, she was able to develop successfully verbal Copanlisib scripts that helped her in orienteering in route-based navigation tasks. She has also developed the ability to Caspase phosphorylation segregate and identify landmarks in a landscape. Differently, F.G., the case described by Bianchini et al. (2010), showed a more pervasive and severe topographical disorientation. Indeed, he was unable to learn the path shown by the examiner in the route-based navigation task as well as to follow a path shown on a map, showing also a deficit in translating the visual–spatial information

of the DOCK10 maps into verbal scripts. F.G. used the verbal scripts only when someone else provides them. He failed in segregating and identifying a landmark in a landscape, and even when he recognized a landmark he did not know its location or the directional information he could derive from it. More recently, Iaria and Barton (2010) reported a consistent number of individuals who showed deficits in navigation and the ability to orient themselves in the environment in an online evaluation in which participants performed nine tests (object recognition; face identity, and expression

recognition; landmark recognition; heading orientation; left/right orientation (no landmarks); path reversed (no landmarks; formation and use of a cognitive map) including recognition of face, objects, and landmarks as well as navigation tasks in virtual environments. This study confirmed that DTD is not rare and suggests that its incidence could be comparable to that of other selective developmental disorders, such as developmental prosopagnosia. Although, the online assessment did not permit a thorough analysis of the cognitive components of DTD, the study provides a large sample in which many different orientation strategies are affected. Specifically, they found that people affected by DTD differ from matched healthy controls only in those skills confined to the orientation/navigation domain, among which the ability to form a cognitive map was the most significant factor distinguishing a person with DTD from one without DTD.