Larger population sizes reduce the loss of genetic diversity thro

Larger population sizes reduce the loss of genetic diversity through drift and buffer against the risk of population loss due to biotic (e.g. pest or disease) or abiotic stochastic events (e.g. drought, storms or fire) (Alfaro et al., 2014, this issue). It may also be sensible to experiment with planting high densities using highly diverse seed sources and to anticipate relatively Trichostatin A high mortality rates that can be expected to result from chronic or acute climatic stress (Ledig and Kitzmiller, 1992, Miyawaki, 2004 and Chmura et al., 2011). Based on a review of recent plant reintroductions, Godefroid et al. (2011) found a positive relationship between the number of reintroduced individuals and their survival

rate. The rate of generation turnover is key to the capability of tree populations to adapt to changing climate through shifts in trait values from generation to generation. Hence, methods to accelerate turnover rates, such as gap creation, may need to be considered to promote rapid natural selection. Also, the establishment of uneven-aged tree stands is worth exploring for short and long term resilience benefits. Restored forest should become part of a landscape mosaic, connected to the remaining forest where it

exists. Restored areas may often be too small to sustain viable populations of tree species on their own. Therefore, it is important to design restoration projects in a way that effectively connects them to existing tree populations EGFR inhibitor in the landscape or to other restored areas (Cruz Neto et al., 2014), and promotes the migration of tree species, to habitats or microhabitats within or near restoration sites where environmental conditions best match their requirements for survival, growth and reproduction (Aitken et al., 6-phosphogluconolactonase 2008 and Newton, 2011). Connectivity and gene flow are important to foster out-crossing of self-compatible species and sufficient pollen availability for self-incompatible species (Breed et al., 2012). Reduced cross

pollination can result in increased selfing and inbreeding depression leading to reduced seed set depending on the species’ level of self-incompatibility. Ensuring genetically effective connection requires that mating systems, pollen and seed dispersal distances and landscape permeability to gene flow are taken into account from the planning phase of restoration projects. Although many tree species are capable of high gene flow among populations (Ward et al., 2005 and Dick et al., 2008) this varies across species and different types of land use (Vranckx et al., 2012 and Breed et al., 2012). To achieve this, special attention should be given to promoting the survival and mobility of pollinators and seed dispersers (Markl et al., 2012), for example, by facilitating their movement across hard edges caused by human infrastructure (this has been done, for example by using bioducts over or under highways).

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